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Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Inhibitory Actions of Clinical Analgesics, Analgesic Adjuvants, and Plant-Derived Analgesics on Nerve Action Potential Conduction
The action potential (AP) conduction in nerve fibers plays a crucial role in transmitting nociceptive information from the periphery to the cerebral cortex. Nerve AP conduction inhibition possibly results in analgesia. It is well-known that many analgesics suppress nerve AP conduction and voltage-dependent sodium and potassium channels that are involved in producing APs. The compound action potential (CAP) recorded from a bundle of nerve fibers is a guide for knowing if analgesics affect nerve AP conduction. This entry mentions the inhibitory effects of clinically used analgesics, analgesic adjuvants, and plant-derived analgesics on fast-conducting CAPs and voltage-dependent sodium and potassium channels. The efficacies of their effects were compared among the compounds, and it was revealed that some of the compounds have similar efficacies in suppressing CAPs. It is suggested that analgesics-induced nerve AP conduction inhibition may contribute to at least a part of their analgesic effects.
  • 694
  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Gut-Liver Axis and Liver Diseases
The gut-liver axis has an impact on pathogenesis of numerous chronic liver diseases such as chronic hepatitis B (CHB), chronic hepatitis C (CHC), alcoholic liver disease (ALD), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), development of liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).
  • 694
  • 16 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Ketoprofen Lysine Salt as Pharmacological Treatment for SARS-CoV-2
COVID-19 is an infective disease resulting in widespread respiratory and non-respiratory symptoms prompted by SARS-CoV-2 infection. Interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and host cell receptors prompts activation of pro-inflammatory pathways which are involved in epithelial and endothelial damage mechanisms even after viral clearance. Since inflammation has been recognized as a critical step in COVID-19, anti-inflammatory therapies, including both steroids and non-steroids as well as cytokine inhibitors, have been proposed. Early treatment of COVID-19 has the potential to affect the clinical course of the disease regardless of underlying comorbid conditions. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which are widely used for symptomatic relief of upper airway infections, became the mainstay of early phase treatment of COVID-19.
  • 694
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Multimeric PET Radioligands
Multimeric PET radioligands consist of identical binding motifs (pharmacophores) connected to a single backbone (linker) attached to a group, which can be labeled with a positron-emitting radionuclide suitable for PET molecular imaging (radiolabeled domain). 
  • 694
  • 25 May 2021
Topic Review
Uremic Toxins Affect the Endothelium
Uremic toxins can induce endothelial dysfunction in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Indeed, the structure of the endothelial monolayer is damaged in CKD, and studies have shown that the uremic toxins contribute to the loss of cell–cell junctions, increasing permeability. Membrane proteins, such as transporters and receptors, can mediate the interaction between uremic toxins and endothelial cells. In these cells, uremic toxins induce oxidative stress and activation of signaling pathways, including the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways. The activation of these pathways leads to overexpression of proinflammatory (e.g., monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, E-selectin) and prothrombotic (e.g., tissue factor) proteins. Uremic toxins also induce the formation of endothelial microparticles (EMPs), which can lead to the activation and dysfunction of other cells, and modulate the expression of microRNAs that have an important role in the regulation of cellular processes.
  • 694
  • 26 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Memantine
Memantine is effective in blocking excessive activity of NMDA-type glutamate receptors and reduces the progression of dementia and may have benefits after TBI.
  • 694
  • 07 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Vitamin K2 in “Bone-Vascular Crosstalk”
Osteoporosis (OP) and vascular calcification (VC) represent relevant health problems that frequently coexist in the elderly population. Traditionally, they have been considered independent processes, and mainly age-related. However, an increasing number of studies have reported their possible direct correlation, commonly defined as “bone-vascular crosstalk”. Vitamin K2 (VitK2), a family of several natural isoforms also known as menaquinones (MK), has recently received particular attention for its role in maintaining calcium homeostasis.
  • 694
  • 14 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Adenomyoma
The term ‘adenomyoma’ was coined around the year 1880 to designate the majority of mucosa-containing lesions related to the female genital tract. Currently, the term is more commonly applied to localised adenomyosis of the uterus.
  • 694
  • 07 May 2021
Topic Review
Prone Positioning and COVID-19-Related Acute Respiratory Distress
The prone position is a non-invasive technique resulting from the mobilization of the patient, where the person is lying horizontally face down. This technique has been used since the 1970s, but it has gained great relevance in the last year owing to the COVID-19 pandemic with the use of invasive mechanical ventilation.
  • 694
  • 15 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Social Environment in Pacing and Sports Performance
Pacing has been described as a goal-directed process of decision making in which athletes decide when and how to distribute their limited energy resources throughout an exercise task. Adequate pacing behaviour is critical in sports as it facilitates optimal performance. In sports settings, numerous lab and field studies consistently revealed that the social environment is an influential factor in athletes’ pacing and performance, as first observed by Triplett. In head-to-head sports, such as cycling, running, and speed skating, opponents can act as social placebos, inviting changes in athletes’ pacing behaviour impacting positively on performance, while their rate of perceived exertion remains the same. According to the ecological perspective, this occurs because opponents act as social affordances (invitations for actions), providing the athlete with additional performance feedback and therefore influencing their decision-making. 
  • 694
  • 16 Dec 2022
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