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Topic Review
Spinal Cord Injury
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a destructive neurological and pathological state that causes major motor, sensory and autonomic dysfunctions. Its pathophysiology comprises acute and chronic phases and incorporates a cascade of destructive events such as ischemia, oxidative stress, inflammatory events, apoptotic pathways and locomotor dysfunctions. This review aims to promote the understanding of SCI pathophysiology, interrelated or interlinked multimolecular interactions and various methods of neuronal recovery i.e., neuroprotective, immunomodulatory and neuro-regenerative pathways and relevant approaches. 
  • 4.3K
  • 06 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Spinal and Bulbar Muscular Atrophy
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy, also known as Kennedy disease, is a disorder of specialized nerve cells that control muscle movement (motor neurons). These nerve cells originate in the spinal cord and the part of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord (the brainstem).
  • 594
  • 23 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Spina Bifida
Spina bifida is a condition in which the neural tube, a layer of cells that ultimately develops into the brain and spinal cord, fails to close completely during the first few weeks of embryonic development.
  • 440
  • 23 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Spilogale
The genus Spilogale includes all skunks commonly known as spotted skunks and is composed of four extant species: S. gracilis, S. putorius, S. pygmaea, and S. angustifrons.
  • 585
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Spider–Plant Associations
Spiders are ubiquitous generalist predators playing an important role in regulating insect populations in many ecosystems. Traditionally they have not been thought to have strong influences on, or interactions with plants. However, this is slowly changing as several species of cursorial spiders have been reported engaging in either herbivory or inhabiting only one, or a handful of related plant species. 
  • 492
  • 15 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Spices as Sustainable Food Preservatives
Throughout history, spices have been employed for their pharmaceutical attributes and as a culinary enhancement. The food industry widely employs artificial preservatives to retard the deterioration induced by microbial proliferation, enzymatic processes, and oxidative reactions. Nevertheless, the utilization of these synthetic preservatives in food products has given rise to significant apprehension among consumers, primarily stemming from the potential health risks that they pose. These risks encompass a spectrum of adverse effects, including but not limited to gastrointestinal disorders, the disruption of gut microbiota, allergic reactions, respiratory complications, and concerns regarding their carcinogenic properties. Consequently, consumers are displaying an increasing reluctance to purchase preserved food items that contain such additives. Spices, known for their antimicrobial value, are investigated for their potential as food preservatives. 
  • 292
  • 09 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Sphingosine Kinase 1
Sphingosine kinase (SPHK) catalyses the ATP-dependent phosphorylation of sphingosine to form sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), which acts as an intracellular second messenger and extracellular ligand for specific receptors. S1P can be released through specific transporters to act as a ligand for the family of G protein-coupled S1P receptors 1 to 5 (S1P1 to S1P5) and regulates a wide range of biological effects including transformation and cancer cell survival. S1P levels are tightly regulated by the balance between synthesis by SPHK, reversible conversion to sphingosine by specific S1P phosphatases (SPP1 and SPP2), and degradation by S1P lyase. 
  • 1.3K
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Sphingosine 1-phosphate
The breakdown of the endothelial cell (EC) barrier contributes significantly to sepsis mortality. Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is one of the most effective EC barrier-stabilizing signaling molecules. Stabilization is mainly transduced via the S1P receptor type 1 (S1PR1). Here, we demonstrate that S1P was autonomously produced by ECs. S1P secretion was significantly higher in primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) compared to the endothelial cell line EA.hy926. Constitutive barrier stability of HUVEC, but not EA.hy926, was significantly compromised by the S1PR1 antagonist W146 and by the anti-S1P antibody Sphingomab. HUVEC and EA.hy926 differed in the expression of the S1P-transporter Spns2, which allowed HUVEC, but not EA.hy926, to secrete S1P into the extracellular space. Spns2 deficient mice showed increased serum albumin leakage in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Lung ECs isolated from Spns2 deficient mice revealed increased leakage of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) labeled dextran and decreased resistance in electric cell-substrate impedance sensing (ECIS) measurements. Spns2 was down-regulated in HUVEC after stimulation with pro-inflammatory cytokines and lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which contributed to destabilization of the EC barrier. Our work suggests a new mechanism for barrier integrity maintenance. Secretion of S1P by EC via Spns2 contributed to constitutive EC barrier maintenance, which was disrupted under inflammatory conditions via the down-regulation of the S1P-transporter Spns2.
  • 863
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Sphingomonas Turrisvirgatae Bacteriophage vB_StuS_MMDA13
Sphingomonas turrisvirgatae is a recently described species within the Sphingomonas genus. This species is endowed of agarolytic activity, a feature never reported before among sphingomonads. The capability of Sphingomonas sp. MCT13 to degrade agar, suggests that this strain could be potentially interesting for industrial applications in the field of complex carbohydrates degradation. Sphingomonas is a very large and heterogeneous genus, and its huge biodiversity is responsible for the challenges of obtaining a reliable identification at the species level through conventional biochemical analyses. Indeed, bacteriophages specific for S. turrisvirgatae have been looked for, both as a rapid tool to identify and collect more isolates of this species, and for obtaining hints of its ecology. vB_StuS_MMDA13 was isolated from a surface freshwater sample, obtained from a pond near Viterbo (Italy), by using the Sphingomonas turrisvirgatae MCT13T strain as host. The phage is lytic, belongs to the Siphoviridae family, and, as such, represents the first characterized lytic siphovirus able to infect a Sphingomonas species. vB_StuS_MMDA13 has a genome of ≈ 64 kb which encodes 89 potential proteins. A module for the biosynthesis of 7-deazaguanine derivatives, with a unique organization, is also present. The lysis module, which includes the endolysin, a holin/antiholin system and a Rz/Rz1 system, does not share significant similarities with other viral proteins in the databases. At the genome level vB_StuS_MMDA13 is loosely related to the Pseudomonas aeruginosa-infecting Nipunaviruses; however, both the 7-deazaguanine derivatives biosynthetic- and the lysis-modules are very different from these and other related bacteriophages. According to these features, we feel that vB_StuS_MMDA13 should be regarded as the type strain of a newly discovered genus within the Siphoviridae family, which we propose to name Ememdadecimater-like virus, after the short name of the first characterized phage of the genus.
  • 798
  • 28 Aug 2020
Topic Review
Sphingolipids in Viral Infections
Sphingolipids (SLs) are highly abundant components of cellular membranes and as such, are essentially involved in their biophysical and signaling properties. A complex metabolic network consisting of enzymes catalyzing their synthesis, modification (phosphorylation, glycosylation) and breakdown regulates accumulation of sphingolipid species and thereby the sphingolipid pool at rheostat conditions, and this can undergo substantial changes in response to metabolic and external challenges. This has been excellently reviewedand will therefore just be briefly re-iterated below.
  • 517
  • 22 Sep 2021
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