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Topic Review
Annulment
Annulment is a legal procedure within secular and religious legal systems for declaring a marriage null and void. Unlike divorce, it is usually retroactive, meaning that an annulled marriage is considered to be invalid from the beginning almost as if it had never taken place (though some jurisdictions provide that the marriage is only void from the date of the annulment; for example, this is the case in section 12 of the Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 in England and Wales). In legal terminology, an annulment makes a void marriage or a voidable marriage null.
  • 7.1K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
The Black Madonna
The Black Madonna, with origins in Africa, is a prominent example of how African beliefs have been integrated into other faiths in ways that are often obscured from view. The Black Madonna is compared with the characteristics and symbolism of the traditional fair-skinned Virgin Mary. It is estimated that there are hundreds of depictions of the Black Madonna, yet her identity as truly black is generally minimized. This review contributes a theoretical rationale for the lack of recognition and acceptance of the Madonna as black, contextualizing this within a feminist theoretical viewpoint and analyzing the connection to African folklore and traditional religious beliefs. The theoretical framework articulated in this paper contributes an elucidation of the ways that indigenous African religions have affected other world religions. Acknowledging this influence challenges the simplistic notion of reified distinctions between Western and non-Western religions.
  • 6.8K
  • 01 Jul 2021
Topic Review
State-Dependent Memory
State-dependent memory or state-dependent learning is the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed. The term is often used to describe memory retrieval while in states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs – most commonly, alcohol, but has implications for mood or non-substance induced states of consciousness as well. Unlike context-dependent memory, which involves an individual's external environment and conditions, state-dependent memory applies to the individual's internal conditions. For example, while context-dependent memory might refer to the idea that taking a test in the same room that an individual studied in will make it easier to retrieve those memories, state-dependent learning refers to the idea that if an individual always studied for a test while slightly caffeinated, it will most likely be easiest to recall what they studied during the test if they are at a similar level of caffeination.
  • 6.8K
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Exonym and Endonym
An exonym (from Greek: éxō, 'outer' + ónuma, 'name'; also known as xenonym) is a common, external name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, or a language/dialect, that is used only outside that particular place, group, or linguistic community. Exonyms not only exist for historico-geographical reasons, but also in consideration of difficulties when pronouncing foreign words. An endonym (from Greek: éndon, 'inner'; also known as autonym) is a common, internal name for a geographical place, group of people, or a language/dialect, that is used only inside the place, group, or linguistic community in question; it is their self-designated name for themselves, their homeland, or their language.
  • 6.7K
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Remarriage
Remarriage is a marriage that takes place after a previous marital union has ended, as through divorce or widowhood. Some individuals are more likely to remarry than others; the likelihood can differ based on previous relationship status (e.g. divorced vs. widowed), level of interest in establishing a new romantic relationship, gender, race, and age among other factors. Those who choose not to remarry may prefer alternative arrangements like cohabitation or living apart together. Remarriage also provides mental and physical health benefits. However, although remarried individuals tend to have better health than individuals who do not repartner, they still generally have worse health than individuals who have remained continuously married. Someone who repeatedly remarries is referred to as a serial wedder.
  • 6.6K
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Video Game Live Streaming
Video game live streaming is a kind of real-time video social media that integrates traditional broadcasting and online gaming. Real-time, sociability and suspense are the main features of video game live streaming. Video game live streaming can meet user demands in social integration, personal integration, tension release, affection, and cognition. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of video game live streaming, the following text summarizes the background from the live streaming industry and research status. After that, the definition, users, features and community classification of video game live streaming are introduced in detail.
  • 6.5K
  • 02 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Blonde Stereotype
Blonde stereotypes are stereotypes of blond-haired women. Sub-types include the "blonde bombshell" and the "dumb blonde". Blondes are differently stereotyped from brunettes as more desirable and less intelligent. There are many blonde jokes made on these premises. Although chiefly aimed at women, jokes of this style have also been aimed at similar stereotypes associated with men, such as the "dumb jock" and the "surfer dude".
  • 6.3K
  • 25 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Custodial Death of P Jayaraj and Bennicks
On 19 June 2020, P. Jayaraj (59 years old) and his son J. Bennicks (also spelled Fennix, Bennix) (31 years old) were picked up for inquiry by the Tamil Nadu Police in Sathankulam, Thoothukudi district for allegedly violating the Indian government's COVID-19 lockdown rules. According to the police, the duo was held for allegedly keeping their mobile accessories shop open beyond permissible hours on June 19. An FIR was filed against the two on 19 June and both were taken into custody. However CBI in chargesheet claimed there were no violation of the lockdown rules. they were sexually assaulted and tortured by the police while in custody, leading to their deaths. On 22 June 2020, Bennicks fell ill and was moved to the Kovilpatti General Hospital, where he died later that day. The following day, 22 June 2020, his father also died. The custodial death of the two men in Tamil Nadu's Sathankulam town in Thoothukudi district sparked massive outrage in the state over police brutality.
  • 6.2K
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
List of Artifacts in Biblical Archaeology
The following is a list of artifacts—objects created or modified by human culture—that are significant to biblical archaeology.
  • 6.2K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Development Communication Policy Science
Development communication policy sciences is the study of policy issues related to development communications. These two branches of social sciences are regarded as distinct and mutually exclusive areas of study but are said to be inextricably linked. According to Nora C. Quebral (2012), the University of the Philippines Los Baños defines Development Communication as the interaction of two social process—development and communication—in any given environment. Quebral, being the "mother of development communication", initially articulated that, in 1971, Development Communication was tentatively defined as "the art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and larger fulfillment of the human potential" (p. 3). Gonzales (no date) defines development as a "quest for an improved quality of life for all" and communication is used to facilitate changes in people and society so that their full potential will be realised. Grounded on the mentioned basic meanings of development and communication, development communication is defined as "the use of communication in development work". Guru (1997) adds that development communication provides a conceptual and practical framework which is meant to accelerate the process of development in all spheres of human life. It is also meant to break the wall of ignorance, thus, breaking the bonds of poverty and oppression. In 1993, Alexander Flor suggested to refine the definition of development communication including the perspective of cybernetics and general systems theory. In 1995, Alexander Flor claimed development communication as the Fifth Theory of the Press. According to the author, it is the suitable system given "the social and political structures" of the Third World and its present universal environment. In UNESCO's approaches to development communication, Jan Servaes cited "while communication on its own will not bring about change and development, neither will change happen without development communication. We need to integrate all our efforts". Flor & Ongkiko (1998) describe development communication in the book titled 'Introduction to Development Communication' as purposive as it primarily uses communication not merely to give information but practically to influence the people- the receivers of information. Nair (1993) adds that development communication brings change, education and inspiration toward development. In 2001, Quebral redefined development communication as the "art and science of human communication linked to a society's planned transformation from a state of poverty to one of dynamic socio-economic growth that makes for greater equity and the larger unfolding of individual potential". The World Bank views development communication as the "integration of strategic communication in development projects" based on a clear understanding of indigenous realities. In 2006, Bassette defined development communication as a "planned and systematic application of communication resources, channels, approaches and strategies to support the goals of socio–economic, political and cultural development". In 2007, the Rome Consensus gave this definition: "Communication for Development is a social process based on dialogue using a broad range of tools and methods. It is also about seeking change at different levels including listening, building trust, sharing knowledge and skills, building policies, debating and learning for sustained and meaningful change. It is not public relations or corporate communication." According to Dr. Florangel Rosario-Braid, a communication expert in the Philippines, development communication is defined as a "purposive approach to communication" that intends to bring about social and economic change in the lives of the greatest number of the population. Braid says Development Communication involves three key elements: (1) Communication involves people's participation, (2) Stakeholders are in active dialogue and consultation, (3) End goal should be to uphold the rights and needs of the people and to achieve "self-reliance and autonomy". Human perspectives of development come into consciousness through communication whereby social reality is negotiated culturally and politically. Communication encompasses all levels of development in society and development initiatives like in health, agriculture, family planning, etc. It is a tool for mitigating global frontiers, contrasts, and divisions and landscaping structural intricacies and dynamic transformations in this sphere—the evidences of change and their social evolution. The Communication Initiative Network defines communication in models of development. To study communication is no less than one way to study policy-making. Communication about development ensures the sustained attention to the issues and which in turn is necessary in getting the essential commitment from world leaders and the wider public to give meaning to the process. The purpose of development communication is to support sustainable change in development operations by engaging key stakeholders, specifically, to: (a) establish conducive environments for assessing risks and opportunities; (b) disseminate information [to generate knowledge, p. 14]; (c) induce behavior and social change. Communicating "development" is framed within economic growth under the Western-centric modernization for underdeveloped countries using traditional vertical (top-down), linear, one-way Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver model based on Lasswell's 1948 communication theory as monologic, persuasive information and message transfer/dissemination/diffusion or selling of ideas through mass media (e.g., advertisements, social marketing). This dominant paradigm which was opposed by the political-economic framework of dependency is in part abandoned and has taken the perspectives of "participation", "empowerment", and socio-cultural "multiplicity" for sustainable or long-term economic growth stipulated by the Millennium Development Goals. Communication is underscored for meaningful participation using horizontal, two-way (dialogic/interactive) communication principles and practices to facilitate stakeholders' engagement throughout the development process. These are captured by the 17 Global Goals to 2030 for sustainable development through social progress. Development communication as a field is defined by: (1) World Bank as "an interdisciplinary field based on empirical research that helps to build consensus while it facilitates the sharing of knowledge to achieve positive change in development initiatives. It is not only about effective dissemination of information but also about using empirical research and two-way communication among stakeholders" and key management tool in assessing socio-political risks and opportunities; and (2) First World Congress of Communication for Development in Rome on October 2006 as "a social process based on dialog using a broad range of tools and methods. It is also about seeking change at different levels, including listening, building trust, sharing knowledge and skills, building policies, debating, and learning for sustained and meaningful change. It is not public relations or corporate communication". Participation refers to people's involvement from social movement and project-based perspectives which could be passive (informed), consultative (provides feedback), functional (takes part in discussion and analysis by horizontal communication), and empowered (equal partners with external professionals in decision-making) along the ladder to change. To move into sustainability, change in people's beliefs and practices take place. However, "...change cannot occur without communication". Development communication accommodates three pillars of sustainable development: (1) ecological; (2) economic; and (3) social issues. In addition, Paolo Mefalopulos of the World Bank, believes that a four-phase methodological framework can help formulate appropriate communication strategies in development communication through (1) research, often referred to as communication-based assessment, or CBA; (2) inputs for the strategy design; (3) production of the materials and implementation of the planned activities; and (4) evaluation. Social, cultural, economic, political, technological and environmental issues and their utterances (also known as "advocacies") in the form of gender concerns, capitalism (e.g., welfare capitalism), marginalization (e.g., social welfare development), poverty, health care, climate change versus sustainable development, and social innovation are brought to public knowledge, and to a consensus for action on the interests, needs and capacities of all concerned through development communication. It also provides stakeholders access to national and local development goals and plans in a communication system where they can communicate horizontally and vertically to coordinate for resource and human development, more so to promote equal opportunities for social welfare, to seek social change involving innovations, and a higher quality of life and values of society. It is a vital part of the political and policy processes. The interface of development communication and policy sciences is the common ground for social and political actions such as reforms in order to: (1) blur discriminatory tensions, (2) reckon the benefit of change, and (3) configure disarrays of allocating equities between the government, corporations, and social sectors. They strengthen the basic framework of management sciences by adding much needed components. Policies articulate directions for their mobilization and regulatory mechanisms since it is set to be anticipatory or forward-looking that is, problems have been envisioned (predicted) at vantage points (strategic) so countermeasures can have minimal consequences. 'Legitimacy' of policies can be defined in terms of their (a) effectiveness and (b) relevance in the real world to address the multidimensional and complex problems. The policy sciences study the process of deciding or choosing and evaluate the relevance of available knowledge for the solution of particular problems. When policy scientists are concerned with government, law, and political mobilization, they focus on particular decisions. Policy scientists also study the choosing process of nongovernmental organizations and individuals and consider the significance of the current stock of knowledge for specific issues. According to Hale (2011), the central aim of policy sciences is to resolve problems [in the service of human dignity] and the diverse human, historical, and contextual element in public policy-making. This is a reiteration of the Lasswellian maxim on public policy in the following key elements: "contextual"; "problem-oriented"; "multi-method inquiry" or diverse empirical methods; "political"; "normative, welfare-oriented" in the case of social policy goals; and posing "interdisciplinarity" or moving between humanities and social sciences. Policy sciences improve decision-making by reinforcing and supporting human dignity to elide the blinders of instrumental reason by addressing the manifold of human experience. According to Laswell (1971), an adequate strategy of problem solving in policy sciences encompasses five intellectual tasks. These five tasks are performed at varying levels of insight and understanding: goal clarification; trend description; analysis of conditions; projection of developments; and invention, evaluation, and selection of alternatives. With this, the policy sciences integrate philosophy, history, science, prophecy, and commitment. Policy is the "plan of action" for administration, management and control of resources. The Evidence-Based Policy in Development Network and Overseas Development Institute provide a mirror of policy sciences on development by information exchange between stakeholders. Policy-making involves analysis of data and options to determine the "best" possible solution to the problem, weighing between welfare, health, expediency, efficiency, justice, and rights, among other things at par with understanding value judgments. The Lessons Database by the Independent Evaluation Department of the Asian Development Bank frames the rigors of balancing a variety of factors in the context of organizational and operational effectiveness. Prioritization towards sustainable development is actually based on estimates of economic and social costs, interests and power structures, scientific information, and ethics. Nair (1987) emphasized that communication can be utilized in providing service to the people. It is essential for mobilizing initiatives and providing information required for action in all fields of development such as agriculture, health and family planning, education and religion. However, MacBride Commission (1980) highlighted that adequate financing must be given to development projects. Without funds, programs of governments will not succeed. Apart from funding, there are other equally important aspects in implementing projects. Communication for Asia (CFA) shares their 5I's methodology in development communication: Inform, Instruct, Inspiration, Insist and Involvement. The 5I's means informing all stakeholders of concerns and priorities to achieve collaboration and cooperation of everyone in mutually sharing expertise and talents in serving the people. The term "policy sciences" was originally coined by Harold D. Lasswell and Daniel Lerner as an approach to understanding and solving problems that draw on and contribute to all fields of knowledge. It is a set of procedures in an integrated and comprehensive form to help clarify and secure common interests. The term "policy sciences" is in plural form to emphasize its interdisciplinary nature. Fraser (1998) elucidated the purposive nature of both development communication and policy sciences, thus intertwining their functions. Policies will greatly aid in the successful implementation of projects as they provide directions on what necessary steps to take. In the work of Alexander Flor, the term "development communication policy sciences" was not used as a whole phrase but was mentioned separately as development communication and policy sciences. He discussed the term according to the linkage of development communication and policy sciences as fundamental and traceable even before either area was afforded the status of science. Communication policy research evolved from the outset as a multi-disciplinary field and domain of various academic disciplines from sociology and political science to law and economics, resulting in the coverage of a myriad of multi-faceted topics. The choice of subjects in communication policy research is affected by sociocultural, political, economic and technological forces that determine the overall framework for communication policy and regulation as well as by the many regulatory objectives in communication. The place of communication in the development process was given a boost when Lerner (1958) wrote his famous treatise 'The Passing of the Traditional Society', in which he acknowledged that mass media growth was one of the three phases of democratic political development (Moemeka, n.d). He pointed out that the mass media had the power to create opportunity for empathy which 'disciplined western men in skills that spell modernity'. Development communication is basically communication for social change to achieve one's potential. This is embodied in Nora Quebral's (1971) definition which states that development communication is the "art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equity and the larger fulfillment of the human potential." Quebral (2001) redefined development communication to "the art and science of human communication linked to a society's planned transformation from a state of poverty to one of dynamic socio-economic growth that makes for greater equity and the larger unfolding of individual potential." McKee (1992) emphasized that people's involvement is the key to the desired changes. Unless people see themselves as the driving force of their own development, no amount of investment or provision of technology and inputs will bring about any lasting improvements in their living standards. An important and founding impetus for communication policy research came from Harold D. Lasswell, who also figures prominently as a founding father of communication science and policy science (Rogers 1994). He argued that future advances in communication study depended upon the development of a policy focus and upon being a third voice supplying 'a competing appraisal of the images spread by self-serving sources' (Lasswell 1972:307). The conception of the policy sciences on the other hand, is more refined and extended today than at any time in the colorful history of man (Lasswell, 1971). Giving a working definition for it, he noted that policy sciences are concerned with knowledge of and in the decision processes of the public and civic order.
  • 6.1K
  • 19 Oct 2022
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