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Topic Review
Last Deglaciation Rainfall Changes
Three drier periods (lower rainfall) (i.e., before ~17, ~1513.5, and 7–3 ka BP) and three wetter periods (higher rainfall) (i.e., ~17–15, ~13.5–7, and after ~3 ka BP) were detected on Southern Indonesia (off southwest Sumba) based on geochemical element (terrigenous input) proxies (ln Ti/Ca and K/Ca). During the Last Deglaciation, AISM rainfall responded to high latitude climatic events related to the latitudinal shifts of the austral summer ITCZ. Sea level rise, solar activity, and orbitally-induced insolation were most likely the primary driver of AISM rainfall changes during the Holocene, but the driving mechanisms behind the latitudinal shifts of the austral summer ITCZ during this period are not yet understood.
  • 685
  • 27 Jan 2022
Topic Review
IAQ and Façade–Ventilation Systems
Poor indoor air quality affects the health of the occupants of a given structure or building. It reduces the effectiveness of learning and work efficiency. Among many pollutants, PM 2.5 and 10 dusts are extremely important. They can be eliminated using mechanical ventilation equipped with filters. Façade ventilation devices are used as a way to improve indoor air quality (IAQ) in existing buildings. For their analysis, researchers used carbon dioxide as a tracer gas. They have shown that façade ventilation devices are an effective way to improve IAQ, but require further analysis due to the sensitivity of façade ventilation devices to the effects of wind and outdoor temperature. In addition, legal regulations in some countries require verification in order to enable the use of this type of solution as a way to improve IAQ in an era characterised by the effort to transform buildings into passive houses (standard for energy efficiency in a building). 
  • 674
  • 04 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Mediterranean Drought: Regional Exceptional Datasets
To define such drought events and their characteristics, separate analyses based on three drought indices were performed at 12-month timescale: the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), and the Reconnaissance Drought Index (RDI). A multivariate combined drought index (DXI) was developed by merging the previous three indices for more understanding of droughts’ features at the country and subregional levels. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify five different drought subregions based on DXI-12 values for 312 Mediterranean stations and a new special score was defined to classify the multi-subregional exceptional drought events across the Mediterranean Basin (MED). The results indicated that extensive drought events occurred more frequently since the late 1990s, showing several drought hotspots in the last decades in the southeastern Mediterranean and northwest Africa. In addition, the results showed that the most severe events were more detected when more than single drought index was used. 
  • 654
  • 11 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Iberian Peninsula under Climate Change
This entry presents the results of a systematic review of temperature and precipitation extremes over the Iberian Peninsula, focusing on observed changes in temperature and precipitation during the past years and what are the projected changes by the end of the 21st century. The purpose of this entry is to assess the current literature about extreme events and their change under global warming. Observational and climate modeling studies from the past decade were considered in this entry.
  • 631
  • 18 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Long-Term Trends of Heat Stress for South Africa
Increasing air temperature coupled with high humidity due to ongoing climate change across most parts of South Africa is likely to induce and intensify heat exposure, particularly in densely populated areas. The adverse health implications, including heatstroke, are expected to be common and more severe during extreme heat and heat wave events.
  • 623
  • 17 Dec 2021
Topic Review
PM0.1 in Southeast Asian Cities
PM0.1 (particles with a diameter ≤ 0.1 µm), nanoparticles (NPs), or ultrafine particles (UFPs) were interchangeably used in the scientific communities. PM0.1 originated from both natural and human sources.
  • 615
  • 30 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Nanoparticle Number Concentration
The entry analyzes suspended particles number concentrations of 61 size fractions (184 nm to 17,165 nm) in the air at a traffic location. The average course of the individual fractions was analyzed at various intervals – daily, weekly, monthly and annually, in the period between 2017 and 2019. The data was then used to calculate the arithmetic mean for all the fractions (MS Excel, R) and then using a proprietary web application, heatmaps were constructed. The obtained results showed significant differences in both the annual and daily variation of number concentrations between the individual fractions differing in particle size. In the case of the annual variation, one can see a greater variability of smaller particles, which is most likely due to the source of the actual suspended particles. Meteorological and dispersion conditions are found as important factors for suspended particle concentrations. These can lead to significant differences from year to year. However, a comparison between 2018 and 2019 showed that even though the average absolute number concentrations can differ between years, the actual relative number concentrations, i.e. the ratios between the individual fractions remain very similar. In conclusion it can be said that the difference between the number concentration variation of the size fractions depends on both the actual pollution sources (especially in the long-term, i.e. the annual variation) and the actual size of the particles, which plays a role especially in the short-term (daily, weekly variation).
  • 605
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Air Quality and Shipping Emissions
Maritime transport has been recognized as an essential driver for economic and social development, especially for coastal regions. However, shipping and in-port activities pose public health issues and environmental pressures, exposing coastal population to associated emissions (i.e., particulate matter and gaseous pollutants). In the last decades, several policies have been implemented at local/regional and international level, reducing the content of sulphur in marine fuels. This work provides a brief comment of some recent results regarding the impacts of maritime emissions on air quality, health effects and future projections, taking into account the current implementation of the IMO-2020 legislation. Finally, future perspectives and potential mitigation strategies are discussed.
  • 596
  • 18 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Atmospheric Models
Static atmospheric models describe how the ideal gas properties (namely: pressure, temperature, density, and molecular weight) of an atmosphere change, primarily as a function of altitude. The World Meteorological Organization defines a standard atmosphere as "a hypothetical vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature, pressure and density which, by international agreement, is roughly representative of year-round, midlatitude conditions. Typical usages are as a basis for pressure altimeter calibrations, aircraft performance calculations, aircraft and rocket design, ballistic tables, and meteorological diagrams." For example, the U.S. Standard Atmosphere derives the values for air temperature, pressure, and mass density, as a function of altitude above sea level. Other static atmospheric models may have other outputs, or depend on inputs besides altitude.
  • 594
  • 08 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Pollution in the Air
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were widely used in industrial and commercial applications, until they were banned in the late 1970s as a result of their significant environmental pollution. PCBs in the environment gained scientific interest because of their persistence and the potential threats they pose to humans. Traditionally, human exposure to PCBs was linked to dietary ingestion.
  • 590
  • 15 Nov 2022
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