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Topic Review
Oligarchy
Oligarchy (from el ὀλιγαρχία (oligarkhía); from ὀλίγος (olígos) 'few', and ἄρχω (arkho) 'to rule or to command') is a form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people. These people may be distinguished by nobility, wealth, family ties, education or corporate, religious or political, military control. Such states are often controlled by families who typically pass their influence from one generation to the next, but inheritance is not a necessary condition for the application of this term. Throughout history, oligarchies have often been tyrannical, relying on public obedience or oppression to exist. Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as a synonym for rule by the rich, for which another term commonly used today is plutocracy. Although an oligarchy is usually seen as tyrannical, most modern states rely on some form of oligarchy, usually in the form of representative officials deciding national policy. The concern of tyranny usually occurs when the rule of law is violated or when there's limited separation of powers. Especially during the fourth century BCE, after the restoration of democracy from oligarchical coups, the Athenians used the drawing of lots for selecting government officers to counteract what the Athenians saw as a tendency toward oligarchy in government if a professional governing class were allowed to use their skills for their own benefit. They drew lots from large groups of adult volunteers to pick civil servants performing judicial, executive, and administrative functions (archai, boulē, and hēliastai). They even used lots for posts, such as judges and jurors in the political courts (nomothetai), which had the power to overrule the Assembly.
  • 2.5K
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Elephant in the Room
Elephant in the room is an English-language metaphorical idiom for an obvious problem or risk that no one wants to discuss. It is based on the idea/thought that something as conspicuous as an elephant can appear to be overlooked in codified social interactions, and that the sociology/psychology of repression also operates on the macro scale.
  • 7.6K
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Baby Bonus
A baby bonus is a government payment to parents of a newborn baby or adopted child to assist with the costs of childrearing.
  • 1.4K
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Handbook of Middle American Indians
Handbook of Middle American Indians (HMAI) is a sixteen-volume compendium on Mesoamerica, from the prehispanic to late twentieth century. Volumes on particular topics were published from the 1960s and 1970s under the general editorship of Robert Wauchope. Separate volumes with particular volume editors deal with a number of general topics, including archeology, cultural anthropology, physical anthropology, linguistics, with the last four substantive volumes treating various topics in Mesoamerican ethnohistory, under the editorship of Howard F. Cline. Select volumes have become available in e-book format. A retrospective review of the HMAI by two anthropologists discusses its history and evaluates it. One review calls it a fundamental work. Another reviewer says "since the first volume of the HMAI appeared in 1964 is far and away the most comprehensive and erudite coverage of native cultures of any region in the Americas." A review in the journal Science says that "There can be little doubt that, like the Handbook of South American Indians, this monumental synthesis will provide a sound basis for new generalizations and will stimulate additional research to fill the gaps in knowledge and understanding that will become apparent. Starting in 1981, six volumes in the Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians were published under the general editorship of Victoria Bricker.
  • 439
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Varna Necropolis
The so-called Varna Necropolis (Bulgarian: Варненски некропол) (also Varna Cemetery) is a burial site from 4569–4340 BC in the western industrial zone of Varna (approximately half a kilometre from Lake Varna and 4 km from the city centre), internationally considered one of the key archaeological sites in world prehistory. There were other necropoles dating from later Greek and Roman periods around the ancient city. The oldest gold treasure in the world, dating from this period, was discovered at the site.
  • 2.7K
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Assessment in Higher Education
Assessment is a systemic process in higher education that uses empirical data on student learning to refine programs and improve student learning. As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable and clear student learning outcomes for learning, provisioning a sufficient amount of learning opportunities to achieve these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and interpreting evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations, and using the collected information to inform improvement in student learning. Assessment functions as part of a continuous process whereby the parts of the cycle are revised and monitored. The term “assessment” is defined broadly in that any outcome or goal in any activity or discipline can be a part of this process.
  • 1.0K
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Congressional Research Service Reports
Reports by the Congressional Research Service, usually referred to as CRS Reports, are the encyclopedic research reports written to clearly define issues in a legislative context. Over 700 new CRS reports are produced each year; almost 4,000 exist. The types of CRS reports include Issue Briefs (IB), Research Memos (RM), and Reports, which appear in both Short (RS) and Long (RL) formats.
  • 371
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Social Infrastructure
Social infrastructure is a general term referring to a class of internet services which allow websites or mobile devices to integrate social functionality into their application user experience. Such functionality includes social login, sharing, commenting, activity feeds, online identity storage, gamification and others. The technologies and services comprising social infrastructure are made available by a variety of sources including social network providers such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Google. Third-party providers like Gigya, Livefyre, Hull, Echo, BazaarVoice, Janrain, Loginradius, AddThis, and ShareThis provide services that allow applications to integrate social functionality using multiple social networks. While each provider offers a different range of social functionality to applications, all providers offer their own set of tools, plugins, SDKs and APIs to ensure their platform is accessible across as many devices as possible. Using standard programming languages (HTML, JavaScript, PHP, Java, Objective-C, etc.), applications can interface with social infrastructure from desktops, laptops, mobile phones and tablets. Indian ICT company United Telecoms Limited has implemented social infrastructure projects targeting health exchanges, tsunami warning systems, city surveillance, broadband and communication systems for rapid transportation systems.
  • 451
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Race and the War on Drugs
The War on Drugs is a term for the actions taken and legislation enacted by the United States government, intended to reduce or eliminate the production, distribution, and use of illicit drugs. The War on Drugs began during the Nixon Administration with the goal of reducing the supply of and demand for illegal drugs, though an ulterior, racial motivation has been proposed. The War on Drugs has led to controversial legislation and policies, including mandatory minimum penalties and stop-and-frisk searches, which have been suggested to be carried out disproportionately against minorities. The effects of the War on Drugs are contentious, with some suggesting that it has created racial disparities in arrests, prosecutions, imprisonment and rehabilitation. Others have criticized the methodology and conclusions of such studies. In addition to enforcement disparities, some claim that the collateral effects of the War on Drugs have established forms of structural violence, especially for minority communities.
  • 651
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Troubled Families
The Troubled Families programme is a United Kingdom Government scheme under the Department for Communities and Local Government with the stated aim of helping troubled families turn their lives around.
  • 532
  • 27 Oct 2022
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