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Topic Review
Cognitive Authority
According to Rieh (2005), "Patrick Wilson (1983) developed the cognitive authority theory from social epistemology in his book, Second-hand Knowledge: An Inquiry into Cognitive Authority. The fundamental concept of Wilson’s cognitive authority is that people construct knowledge in two different ways: based on their first-hand experience or on what they have learned second-hand from others. What people learn first-hand depends on the stock of ideas they bring to the interpretation and understanding of their encounters with the world. People primarily depend on others for ideas as well as for information outside the range of direct experience. Much of what they think of the world is what they have gained second-hand. Wilson (1983) argues that all that people know of the world beyond the narrow range of their own lives is what others have told them. However, people do not count all hearsay as equally reliable; only those who are deemed to “know what they are talking about” become cognitive authorities. Wilson coined the term cognitive authority to explain the kind of authority that influences thoughts that people would consciously recognize being proper. Cognitive authority differs from administrative authority or the authority vented in a hierarchical position." (Rieh, 2005).
  • 1.3K
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Volunteers Nature Conservation Motivational Factors
Global biodiversity is under pressure from human activities, and the effort for nature conservation and restoration and the allocation of economic resources for biodiversity policies remain insufficient. In such a context, volunteers can play an important role as a resource in nature conservation projects if their recreational activities interact with the objectives of nature management. Ensuring that volunteers remain motivated and engaged is crucial for the success of conservation projects. Five motivational factors determine the engagement of the volunteers, namely social, nature value, instrumental, identification, and personal benefit.
  • 1.3K
  • 23 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Forgiveness Scale
A forgiveness scale is a psychological test that attempts to measure a person's willingness to forgive. A true definition of forgiveness is debated by many researchers, yet Hargrave suggests that forgiveness refers to releasing resentment towards an offender. Forgiveness is a complex phenomenon which involves cognitive, affective, behavioural, motivational, decisional and interpersonal elements. Forgiveness is thought to be central to human functioning and important in restoring interpersonal relationships. It is an effective intervention to problems caused by anger, depression, drug abuse, guilt and moral development. Due to the different conceptualisations of forgiveness, different scales have been developed to measure the ability in different ways. Examples of forgiveness scales include the Forgiveness scale of the Interpersonal Relationship Resolution Scale; the Marital Offence-Specific Forgiveness Scale; the Workplace Forgiveness Scale; and the Tendency to Forgive scale. Forgiveness can also be measured via methods which are not empirical scales. These may come in the form of biological measures; such as chemical, central and peripheral physiological measures, as well as behavioural measures; and measures of self forgiveness. Studies have found that compared to participants without past suicide attempts, those with past suicide attempts scored on the Forgiveness Scale as being significantly less believing of forgiveness by others, were less likely to forgive themselves, and to a lesser degree, were less forgiving of others.
  • 1.3K
  • 14 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Augmented Reality in Education
Augmented reality (AR) enables an interactive experience with the real world where objects in the real world are enhanced by computer-generated perceptual information. This technology has positively influenced different fields, such as industry, entertainment, medicine, tourism, among others. This Entry will explain an overview of twenty-five years of augmented reality in education.
  • 1.3K
  • 20 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Information Technology Specialist (Military)
Information Technology Specialist or Information Systems Operator-Analyst is a Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) in the United States Army. Information Technology Specialists have the responsibility of maintaining, processing and troubleshooting military computer systems and operations.
  • 1.3K
  • 14 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Psychology of Social Class
The psychology of social class is a branch of social psychology dedicated to understanding how social class affects individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. While social class has long been a subject of analysis in fields such as sociology, political science, anthropology, medicine and epidemiology, its emergence within the field of psychology is much more recent.
  • 1.3K
  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Academic Journals
Many academics are critical of the current publishing system, but it is difficult to create a better alternative. The perspective relates to the sciences and social sciences, and discusses the primary purpose of academic journals as providing a seal of approval for perceived quality, impact, significance, and importance. The key issues considered include the role of anonymous refereeing, continuous rather than discrete frequency of publications, avoidance of time wasting, and seeking adventure. Here we give recommendations about the organization of journal articles, the roles of associate editors and referees, measuring the time frame for refereeing submitted articles in days and weeks rather than months and years, encouraging open access internet publishing, emphasizing the continuity of publishing online, academic publishing as a continuous dynamic process, and how to improve research after publication. Citations and functions thereof, such as the journal impact factor and h-index are the benchmark for evaluating the importance and impact of academic journals and published articles. Even in the very top journals, a high proportion of published articles is never cited, not even by the authors themselves. Top journal publications do not guarantee that published articles will make significant contributions, or that they will ever be highly cited. The COVID-19 world should encourage academics worldwide not only to rethink academic teaching, but also to re-evaluate key issues associated with academic journal publishing in the future.   
  • 1.3K
  • 13 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Visual Ageism
The concept of “visual ageism” describes the media practice of visually underrepresenting older people or misrepresenting them in a prejudiced way. Visual ageism refers to visual representations of older people being in peripheral or minor roles without positive attributes; non-realistic, exaggerated, or distorted portraits of older people, and over-homogenized characterizations of older people. 
  • 1.3K
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Social Acceptance of Renewable Energy
Social acceptance of renewable energy is the attitude of the local population of a given territory to accept the presence, installation or expansion of plants, projects and processes for the production of energy from renewable sources (RES) such as geothermal, sun, wind and biomass. It differs from the generally favorable predisposition of a population towards RES in places far from their homes: indeed, social acceptance of local RES can hinder the development of renewable energy projects, even for a population whose general acceptance of RES is relatively high. 
  • 1.3K
  • 08 Jan 2021
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Secondary Education and COVID-19
Secondary education is the second stage of formal education and traditionally begins after primary school, usually about age 11 to 13. The COVID-19 pandemic caused immeasurable changes to the educational system which inevitably greatly impacted secondary education. The current entry describes the changes in secondary education imposed by the pandemic and explores the accompanying challenges.
  • 1.3K
  • 14 Apr 2022
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