Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Michailina Siakalli*
 + 6227 word(s) 6227 2022-02-02 05:55:08 |
2 format is correct
Yvaine Wei
 Meta information modification 6227 2022-02-10 07:22:05 | |
3 updated format
Yvaine Wei
 -5091 word(s) 1136 2022-04-14 09:40:38 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?
Send video materials Upload full video

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Siakalli*, M.; Mousoulidou, M.; Christodoulou, A. Secondary Education and COVID-19. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19115 (accessed on 19 April 2024).
Siakalli* M, Mousoulidou M, Christodoulou A. Secondary Education and COVID-19. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19115. Accessed April 19, 2024.
Siakalli*, Michailina, Marilena Mousoulidou, Andri Christodoulou. "Secondary Education and COVID-19" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19115 (accessed April 19, 2024).
Siakalli*, M., Mousoulidou, M., & Christodoulou, A. (2022, February 07). Secondary Education and COVID-19. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19115
Siakalli*, Michailina, et al. "Secondary Education and COVID-19." Encyclopedia. Web. 07 February, 2022.
Peer Reviewed
Secondary Education and COVID-19
This is a peer-reviewed entry published in Encyclopedia Journal, full entry can be found at 10.3390/encyclopedia2010025

Secondary education is the second stage of formal education and traditionally begins after primary school, usually about age 11 to 13. The COVID-19 pandemic caused immeasurable changes to the educational system which inevitably greatly impacted secondary education. The current entry describes the changes in secondary education imposed by the pandemic and explores the accompanying challenges.

secondary education COVID-19 challenges
The COVID-19 pandemic is an unprecedented crisis. What sets it apart from past health and other crises is that the SARS-CoV-2 virus, because of its high transmissibility, spread worldwide within a short period of time. As of 15 November 2021, there have been over 249 million positive cases and over 5 million deaths documented [1]. As COVID-19 was a novel virus, aside from its transmissibility, nothing was yet known regarding its effects and containment. Therefore, efforts focused on how past epidemics were combated, with social and physical distancing identified as the most successful measure [2][3]. Consequently, countries primarily employed this measure in school settings as a way to prevent the spread [4]. This ultimately led to the complete or partial closing of schools. Contrary to previous outbreaks, where education was disrupted for a short time, COVID-19 was the only pandemic that led to a large-scale and prolonged disruption of education [5].
It is worth noting how education was affected in previous crises. For instance, during the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak in China in 2003, some governments chose to proceed with school closures as a way to prevent the disease from spreading. SARS’s symptoms were similar to those of COVID-19, and it was identified as the first serious transmissible disease to occur in the 21st century [6]. School closures ranged from three weeks in Singapore [7] to over two months in China [8]. Other prevention measures that were applied included class cancellation strategies among upper secondary school and college students [9], mandatory temperature monitoring in primary and lower secondary schools [10][11], and suspension of other child-related activities, such as sports, to prevent large gatherings that could spread the disease [7].
In general, it was found that school closure as a prevention technique did not make a notable difference in the SARS outbreak [12]. This was the case mainly due to the low transmission rate that was reported in educational settings and the low occurrence of the infection in children [8][12][13]. The transmission of SARS among children could be accounted for primarily by households, acquaintances, and relations outside of the school setting [12]. A challenge that occurred from school closures for working parents, especially for those that were healthcare workers, was the additional childcare needs that emerged and the lack of sufficient resources to satisfy them [14][15].
Influenza A (H1N1) was another pandemic of the 21st century. Specifically, it occurred in 2009 in Mexico, and it spread worldwide, with the fatality number reaching 18,449 by August 2010 [16]. Through the outbreak, school closures in various countries lasted a month or less [17][18]. In some countries, effective alternatives to complete school closures were used. For example, restricting students in one classroom with one main teacher was found to be an effective preventive measure [19][20].
Furthermore, during the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) outbreak in 2015 in South Korea, following 186 confirmed cases and 38 deaths [21], a large number of schools were closed on a national scale. However, school closures were only for 10 days as health experts considered this measure unnecessary [22][23]. Nevertheless, preventive procedures were implemented in educational settings, such as temperature monitoring, which raised concerns from educators. This was because the teachers reported that they did not have the appropriate training to handle and implement such procedures, feared the associated stigma for students that did not meet the temperature criteria, and had an increased workload [24].
Notably, the largest impact on education was experienced during the Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreak in West Africa between the years 2014 and 2016 [25][26]. During this outbreak, the countries that were most exposed to the virus were Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, with 28,610 cases and 11,308 deaths documented [25]. In 2014, the rapid transmissibility of EVD led to school closures in the three countries that lasted seven to nine months, causing the loss of a whole academic year [27]. This resulted in serious educational setbacks caused by the expanding learning gaps. Additionally, a large increase in school dropouts was noted, especially in secondary school students from low-income households [28].
Likewise, other crises have affected the educational process. For example, earthquakes have inflicted physical damage on educational institutes, which has led to learning being disrupted and students being deprived of their educational rights. However, in many cases, the learning process was restored relatively quick with the use of remote teaching methods, such as online learning [29][30]. With human life loss and educational resources demolished, natural disasters have a negative impact on academic achievement of secondary school students and often lead to class repetition [31]. The financial loss caused by natural disasters often causes students to drop out of school and join the workforce so they can contribute to the household income [32]. Moreover, in countries prone to natural disasters, there is reduced investment in education [33], and the restoration of the educational process highlights the necessity for rapid reactions to students’ needs [34].
On 11 March 2020, COVID-19 was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO, Geneva, Switzerland) [35]. In an effort to prevent the rapid spread of the virus SARS-CoV-2 that causes COVID-19, governments suspended the normal operation of schools. From early on, China and Mongolia had taken the initiative to close schools as a preventive measure. Following the WHO’s announcement proclaiming COVID-19 as a global pandemic in March, a total number of 109 countries ensued with school closures, and by April 2020, this increased to 151 countries [36]. Reports estimate that 99% of the student population was affected [37]. School closures varied from partially open to complete closure due to COVID-19. Fully closed schools included pre-primary to upper secondary level educational institutions, where at least 80% of their enrolled student population was affected. Partially open schools were of three types: (a) schools that were open for some grade levels or age groups only, (b) open in certain areas only, and (c) open with reduced in-person class time. For most countries, complete or partial school closures lasted for over 21 weeks [36]. Yet, some countries set criteria which allowed them to avoid closing all of their schools. For example, they set a cut-off for class sizes (e.g., Iceland), closed only certain levels of schools (e.g., only upper secondary schools in Sweden switched to distance learning), or reorganized their academic year to reduce the loss of instruction time (e.g., Korea, Lithuania, Australia) [38]. It is worth noting, however, that school closures do not imply cessation of education, but rather the transformation and adaptation of the mode of teaching.
It appears that educational institutes and systems were unprepared to handle a disaster of such an extent [5]. Therefore, the unfamiliar territory in the educational context amplified the concerns of schools, educators, and students, who were called to swiftly adapt to a new reality [39].

References

  1. World Health Organization . Weekly Epidemiological Update on COVID-19—9 November 2021. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/weekly-epidemiological-update-on-covid-19---9-November-2021 (accessed on 15 November 2021).
  2. Bin Nafisah, S.; Alamery, A.H.; Al Nafesa, A.; Aleid, B.; Brazanji, N.A. School Closure during Novel Influenza: A Systematic Review. J. Infect. Public Health 2018, 11, 657–661.
  3. Viner, R.M.; Russell, S.J.; Croker, H.; Packer, J.; Ward, J.; Stansfield, C.; Mytton, O.; Bonell, C.; Booy, R. School Closure and Management Practices during Coronavirus Outbreaks Including COVID-19: A Rapid Systematic Review. Lancet Child Adolesc. Health 2020, 4, 397–404.
  4. Ferguson, N.; Laydon, D.; Nedjati Gilani, G.; Imai, N.; Ainslie, K.; Baguelin, M.; Bhatia, S.; Boonyasiri, A.; Cucunuba Perez, Z.; Cuomo-Dannenburg, G. Report 9: Impact of Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions (NPIs) to Reduce COVID19 Mortality and Healthcare Demand; Imperial College London: London, UK, 2020.
  5. Reimers, F.M. Learning from a Pandemic. The Impact of COVID-19 on Education Around the World. In Primary and Secondary Education During COVID-19: Disruptions to Educational Opportunity During a Pandemic; Reimers, F.M., Ed.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2022; pp. 1–37.
  6. World Health Organization . Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). Available online: https://www.who.int/westernpacific/health-topics/severe-acute-respiratory-syndrome (accessed on 16 November 2021).
  7. Chan, K.P. Control of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome in Singapore. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 2005, 10, 255–259.
  8. Pang, X.; Zhu, Z.; Xu, F.; Guo, J.; Gong, X.; Liu, D.; Liu, Z.; Chin, D.P.; Feikin, D.R. Evaluation of Control Measures Implemented in the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Outbreak in Beijing, 2003. JAMA 2003, 290, 3215–3221.
  9. Huang, C.; Liu, X.; Sun, S.; Li, S.C.; Deng, M.; He, G.; Zhang, H.; Wang, C.; Zhou, Y.; Zhao, Y.; et al. Insights into the Transmission of Respiratory Infectious Diseases through Empirical Human Contact Networks. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 31484.
  10. Chng, S.Y.; Chia, F.; Leong, K.K.; Kwang, Y.P.; Ma, S.; Lee, B.W.; Vaithinathan, R.; Tan, C.C. Mandatory Temperature Monitoring in Schools during SARS. Arch. Dis. Child. 2004, 89, 738.
  11. Tan, C.C. SARS in Singapore-Key Lessons from an Epidemic. Ann. Acad. Med. Singap. 2006, 35, 345–349.
  12. Wong, G.W.K.; Li, A.M.; Ng, P.C.; Fok, T.F. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome in Children. Pediatric Pulmonol. 2003, 36, 261–266.
  13. Peiris, J.; Lai, S.; Poon, L.; Guan, Y.; Yam, L.; Lim, W.; Nicholls, J.; Yee, W.; Yan, W.; Cheung, M.; et al. Coronavirus as a Possible Cause of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. Lancet 2003, 361, 1319–1325.
  14. DiGiovanni, C.; Conley, J.; Chiu, D.; Zaborski, J. Factors Influencing Compliance with Quarantine in Toronto During the 2003 SARS Outbreak. Biosecurity Bioterrorism Biodefense Strategy Pract. Sci. 2004, 2, 265–272.
  15. O’Sullivan, T.L.; Amaratunga, C.; Phillips, K.P.; Corneil, W.; O’Connor, E.; Lemyre, L.; Dow, D. If Schools Are Closed, Who Will Watch Our Kids? Family Caregiving and Other Sources of Role Conflict among Nurses during Large-Scale Outbreaks. Prehospital Disaster Med. 2009, 24, 321–325.
  16. World Health Organization. Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean. Pandemic (H1N1) 2009—Update 112. Available online: https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2010_08_06-en (accessed on 17 November 2021).
  17. Cauchemez, S.; Van Kerkhove, M.D.; Archer, B.N.; Cetron, M.; Cowling, B.J.; Grove, P.; Hunt, D.; Kojouharova, M.; Kon, P.; Ungchusak, K.; et al. School Closures during the 2009 Influenza Pandemic: National and Local Experiences. BMC Infect. Dis. 2014, 14, 207.
  18. Wu, J.T.; Cowling, B.J.; Lau, E.H.Y.; Ip, D.K.M.; Ho, L.-M.; Tsang, T.; Chuang, S.-K.; Leung, P.-Y.; Lo, S.-V.; Liu, S.-H.; et al. School Closure and Mitigation of Pandemic (H1N1) 2009, Hong Kong. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010, 16, 538–541.
  19. Markel, H.; Lipman, H.B.; Navarro, J.A.; Sloan, A.; Michalsen, J.R.; Stern, A.M.; Cetron, M.S. Nonpharmaceutical Interventions Implemented by US Cities During the 1918–1919 Influenza Pandemic. JAMA 2007, 298, 644–654.
  20. Yen, M.-Y.; Chiu, A.W.-H.; Schwartz, J.; King, C.-C.; Lin, Y.E.; Chang, S.-C.; Armstrong, D.; Hsueh, P.-R. From SARS in 2003 to H1N1 in 2009: Lessons Learned from Taiwan in Preparation for the next Pandemic. J. Hosp. Infect. 2014, 87, 185–193.
  21. Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (KDCA). Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS). Available online: https://www.kdca.go.kr/contents.es?mid=a30329000000 (accessed on 16 November 2021).
  22. Ha, K.-M. A Lesson Learned from the MERS Outbreak in South Korea in 2015. J Hosp. Infect. 2016, 92, 232–234.
  23. World Health Organization. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV): Summary of Current Situation, Literature Update and Risk Assessment; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015; Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/179184 (accessed on 16 November 2021).
  24. Lee, I.S.; Yoon, J.H.; Hong, E.J.; Kim, C.Y. Schools’ Response to MERS(MERS-CoV) Outbreak: Schools’ Discretionary Response in Absence of Control Tower. J. Korean Soc. Sch. Health 2015, 28, 188–199.
  25. World Health Organization . Ebola Virus Disease. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease (accessed on 17 November 2021).
  26. Shultz, J.M.; Espinel, Z.; Espinola, M.; Rechkemmer, A. Distinguishing Epidemiological Features of the 2013–2016 West Africa Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak. Disaster Health 2016, 3, 78–88.
  27. Wongani, G.T. Lessons from Ebola: How to Reach the Poorest Children when Schools Reopen. UNICEF Connect, 15 June 2020. Available online: https://blogs.unicef.org/blog/lessons-from-ebola-how-to-reach-the-poorest-children-when-schools-reopen/ (accessed on 17 November 2021).
  28. Smith, W.C. Consequences of School Closure on Access to Education: Lessons from the 2013–2016 Ebola Pandemic. Int. Rev. Educ. 2021, 67, 53–78.
  29. Barboni, L. From Shifting Earth to Shifting Paradigms: How Webex Helped Our University Overcome an Earthquake. CISCO, Upshot by Influitive. 2019. Available online: https://upshotstories.com/stories/from-shifting-earth-to-shifting-paradigms-how-webex-helped-our-university-overcome-an-earthquake (accessed on 25 November 2021).
  30. Todorova, N.; Bjorn-Andersen, N. University Learning in Times of Crisis: The Role of IT. Account. Educ. 2011, 20, 597–599.
  31. Onigbinde, L. The Impacts of Natural Disasters on Educational Attainment: Cross-Country Evidence from Macro Data. Master’s Thesis, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA, 2018.
  32. Kousky, C. Impacts of Natural Disasters on Children. Future Child. 2016, 26, 73–92.
  33. Cuaresma, J.C. Natural Disasters and Human Capital Accumulation. World Bank Econ. Rev. 2010, 24, 280–302.
  34. Bojović, Ž.; Bojović, P.D.; Vujošević, D.; Šuh, J. Education in Times of Crisis: Rapid Transition to Distance Learning. Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ. 2020, 28, 1467–1489.
  35. World Health Organization . WHO Director-General’s Opening Remarks at the Media Briefing on COVID-19 . 11 March 2020. Available online: https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-March-2020 (accessed on 22 November 2021).
  36. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization . COVID-19, Education: From disruption to recovery. Available online: https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse (accessed on 22 November 2021).
  37. Reddy, V.; Soudien, C.; Winnaar, L. Disrupted Learning during COVID-19: The Impact of School Closures on Education Outcomes in South Africa. HSRC Rev. 2020, 18, 10–12.
  38. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development . Country Education Responses to the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic. Available online: https://www.oecd.org/education/country-education-responses-coronavirus.htm (accessed on 16 November 2021).
  39. Rasiah, R.; Kaur, H.; Guptan, V. Business Continuity Plan in the Higher Education Industry: University Students’ Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Academic Continuity Plans during Covid-19 Pandemic. Appl. Syst. Innov. 2020, 3, 51.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Education, Special
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Michailina Siakalli*
,
Marilena Mousoulidou
,
Andri Christodoulou
View Times: 1.2K
Book: Encyclopedia of COVID-19
Entry Collection: COVID-19
Online Date: 07 Feb 2022
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Feedback