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Topic Review
Orthodontically Induced Inflammatory Root Resorption
Orthodontically induced inflammatory root resorption (OIIRR) is considered an undesired and inevitable complication induced by orthodontic forces. This inflammatory mechanism is regulated by immune cells that precede orthodontic tooth movement (OTM) and can influence the severity of OIIRR. OIIRR occurs on almost all tooth roots exposed to orthodontic forces.
  • 860
  • 20 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Immediate Hypersensitivity Reactions Induced by COVID-19 Vaccines
As the world deals with the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccination remains vital to successfully end this crisis. However, COVID-19-vaccine-induced immediate hypersensitivity reactions presenting with potentially life-threatening systemic anaphylactic reactions are one of the reasons for vaccine hesitancy. Studies have suggested that different mechanisms, including IgE-mediated and non-IgE-mediated mast cell activation, may be involved in immediate hypersensitivity. The main culprits triggering hypersensitivity reactions have been suggested to be the excipients of vaccines, including polyethylene glycol and polysorbate 80. Patients with a history of allergic reactions to drugs, foods, or other vaccines may have an increased risk of hypersensitivity reactions to COVID-19 vaccines. Various strategies have been suggested to prevent hypersensitivity reactions, including performing skin tests or in vitro tests before vaccination, administering different vaccines for the primary and following boosters, changing the fractionated doses, or pretreating the anti-IgE antibody.
  • 857
  • 01 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Alveolar Macrophages
At the early stages of life development, alveoli are colonized by embryonic macrophages, which become resident alveolar macrophages (ResAM) and self-sustain by local division. Genetic and epigenetic signatures and, to some extent, the functions of ResAM are dictated by the lung microenvironment, which uses cytokines, ligand-receptor interactions, and stroma cells to orchestrate lung homeostasis. 
  • 856
  • 05 Nov 2021
Topic Review
T regulatory cell (Treg)
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are a subset of CD4+ T lymphocytes that possesses the capacity to suppress immune responses to ensure that the immune system’s response to foreign antigens and its response to self-antigens remains adequately balanced. This homeostatic balance ensures the immune system is inflammatory enough to respond sufficiently to foreign antigens, as well as neoantigens from cancer, and sufficiently counter-balanced or anti-inflammatory that inflammation does not get out of hand, leading to tissue damage or death. The immune-suppressive effects of Tregs regulate tumor immunity, antimicrobial resistance, allergy and transplantation. Tregs also play a central role in maintaining self-tolerance. Treg involvement in this mechanism is pivotal for protection from autoimmune diseases.
  • 849
  • 26 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
The Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay is a versatile technique, which can be used for several applications. It has enormously contributed to the study of infectious diseases.
  • 847
  • 24 Mar 2022
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 and Ebola Virus
RNA viruses pose the greatest threat to public health, with the potential to cause global catastrophic biological events, necessitating the identification of attributes of these microorganisms so as to open up new therapeutic and prophylactic avenues. We have come across many viral outbreaks, which put vulnerable individuals at high risk but differ in the vectors of transmission, rates of fatality and transmissibility. Certain viruses such as Dengue and Zika require an intermediate host for their transmission, while diseases such as COVID-19 and Ebola Virus Disease spread directly from human to human. COVID-19, which resulted in the highest number of deaths globally, has triggered a lot of research into the mechanisms of immune responses generated by RNA viruses and also into the various approaches for combating such viral outbreaks. The experiences with the Ebola outbreak in West Africa have provided valuable lessons to the global community in shaping the initial and quick management strategies for COVID-19.
  • 845
  • 21 Jul 2022
Topic Review
CGAS in Innate Immunity
Cyclic GMP–AMP synthase (cGAS) is the synthase that generates the second messenger cyclic GMP–AMP (cGAMP) upon DNA binding. cGAS was first discovered as the cytosolic DNA sensor that detects DNA exposed in the cytoplasm either from pathogens or cellular damage. Activated cGAS instigates the signaling cascades to activate type I interferon (IFN) expression, critical for host defense and autoimmune diseases. In addition, cGAS plays a role in senescence, DNA repair, apoptosis, and tumorigenesis. Recently, various post-translational modifications (PTMs) of cGAS have been reported, such as phosphorylation, ubiquitination, acetylation, glutamylation, and sumoylation. These PTMs profoundly affect cGAS functions. Thus, here we review the recent reported PTMs of cGAS and how these PTMs regulate cGAS enzymatic activity, DNA binding, and protein stability, and discuss the potential future directions.
  • 844
  • 18 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Flow Cytometry and Spermatogenesis
Flow cytometry has become an invaluable tool for the analysis of testicular heterogeneity, and for the purification of stage-specific spermatogenic cell populations, both for basic research and for clinical applications.
  • 842
  • 08 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Ezrin, VASO-Active Intestinal Peptide and COVID-19
SARS-CoV-2 infection inhibits interferon expression, while hyper-activating innate-immune signalling and expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. SARS-CoV-2 proteins: Spike, M and nsp6, nsp12 and nsp13 inhibit IFR3-mediated Type-1-interferon defence, but hyper-activate intracellular signalling, which leads to dysfunctional expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, particularly IL-1β IL-6, IL-8, and TNFα. Ezrin, a sub-membrane adaptor-protein, organises multi-protein-complexes such as ezrin+NHERF1+NHE+CFTR, which control the density and location of ACE2 receptor expression on the luminal surface of airway-epithelial-cells, as well as determining susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection. This protein complex is vital for lung-surfactant production for efficient gas-exchange. Ezrin also forms multi-protein-complexes that regulate signalling kinases; Ras, PKC, PI3K, and PKA. m-RAGE is a pattern-recognition-receptor of the innate immune system that is triggered by AGEs, which are chemically modified proteins common in the elderly and obese. Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) is a 28-amino acid peptide released by intrinsic neurons in the human airways. 
  • 841
  • 22 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Muramyl Peptides of Bacterial Origin
Muramyl peptides (MPs) are part of the peptidoglycan that forms the backbone of the cell walls of bacteria—both Gram-positive and Gram-negative. MPs are formed during the degradation of bacteria and are pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are recognized by innate immune receptors.
  • 840
  • 02 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Role of Macrophages in Tendon-Bone Healing
Tendon-bone healing comprises three stages: the inflammatory stage, the repair stage, and the remodeling stage. Macrophages appear in substantial populations in the early stages of tendon-bone healing and persist throughout the healing process, regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, and extracellular matrix formation by secreting various inflammatory factors and growth factors. The importance of macrophages in tendon-bone healing has been progressively emphasized in recent years, and the processes by which they affect tendon-bone healing have gradually been uncovered.
  • 840
  • 28 Nov 2022
Topic Review
COVID19 Immunity To Immunology
Immunity is an important term directly related to prevent any kind of infection spreading -particularly Covid19 under this pandemic situation . The specs of immunity depends on various factors like Foods & Diets , Environment / Ecology , Good Habits , Natural Remedies like Herbs & Anti-Oxidant therapy. Now we will discuss the every aspects of Immunity for boosting it up for a natural prevention of Covid19 ! . It is our sociological consiousnrss to maintain  strictly our immune system will be strong enough to fight against this Viral Curse .In the Pandemic world of Covid19 there are 300 types of vaccine-evelopment works are ongoing . In india also we have seen SII ( Pune ) are under trial of Phase2-3 trials . AstraZeneca - Oxford university , Cansino , Pfizer are trying under trial vaccine . As we are all aware that it is a long way to  nd out the ethical trial ( Clinical eciency ) universally U.S.S.R has been under claim stage . We the common people are in good hope that the vaccination will get in success to stop such Spike Crown .Without the term immunity vaccination will not be effecrive to irradicate the viral infection .
  • 839
  • 29 Oct 2020
Topic Review
PD-1 and Its Ligands in Allergy
Programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) and its ligands PD-L1 and PD-L2 are receptors that act in co-stimulatory and coinhibitory immune responses. Signaling the PD-1/PD-L1 or PD-L2 pathway is essential to regulate the inflammatory responses to infections, autoimmunity, and allergies, and it has been extensively studied in cancer.
  • 834
  • 13 Jun 2022
Topic Review
The PD-1/PD-L1 Pathway
Binding of the immune checkpoint programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) to its ligand programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) downregulates the adaptive immune response. PD-L1 is regularly expressed by antigen presenting cells. During an acute immune response, effector T cells transiently upregulate PD-1. In contrast, chronic immune stimulation leads to continuous expression of PD-1 on effector T cells. The latter also occurs in the tumor microenvironment, where PD-L1 can be expressed by tumor cells. The PD-1/PD-L1 pathway is an excellent example for the clinical application of biomarker research in the context of comparative immuno-oncology. Initial comparator studies on this pathway were mainly conducted on cells and tissues derived from mice and humans. This resulted in the discovery of anti PD-1 or anti-PD-L1 immune checkpoint therapy that is widely applied for the treatment of human cancers. The use of monoclonal antibodies directed against PD-1 or PD-L1 as therapeutic agents restores the anti-cancer immune response. In recent years, investigations on these molecules have been extended to canine cancers and confirm the expression of PD-1 and PD-L1 in several canine tumors. Whether immune checkpoint therapy may be a possible treatment option for those canine cancers remains to be revealed in future clinical trials.
  • 834
  • 02 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Adaptive Natural Killer Cells
Natural killer (NK) cells play a significant and vital role in the first line of defense against infection through their ability to target cells without prior sensitization. They also contribute significantly to the activation and recruitment of both innate and adaptive immune cells through the production of a range of cytokines and chemokines. In the context of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, NK cells and CMV have co-evolved side by side to employ several mechanisms to evade one another. However, during this co-evolution the discovery of a subset of long-lived NK cells with enhanced effector potential, increased antibody-dependent responses and the potential to mediate immune memory has revolutionized the field of NK cell biology. The ability of a virus to imprint on the NK cell receptor repertoire resulting in the expansion of diverse, highly functional NK cells to this day remains a significant immunological phenomenon that only occurs in the context of CMV. 
  • 827
  • 23 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Adaptive Immune-Response to Tick-Borne Hemoparasites
Interactions between tick-borne pathogenic hemoparasites and different host effector mechanisms of T- and/or B cell-mediated adaptive immunity, involved in the late and long-lasting protective immune response. 
  • 825
  • 02 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Neoantigen-Reactive T Cells
Neoantigens are mutated proteins that arise from tumor-specific mutations.
  • 825
  • 16 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Engineered Polymer Nanoparticle
Engineering polymeric nanoparticles for their shape, size, surface chemistry, and functionalization using various targeting molecules has shown improved biomedical applications for nanoparticles. Polymeric nanoparticles have created tremendous therapeutic platforms, particularly applications related to chemo- and immunotherapies in cancer.
  • 823
  • 08 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Bladder Cancer
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) play major roles in solid tumor development. They can have both anti-tumor and pro-tumor properties depending on their polarization.
  • 823
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Neutrophil Extracellular Trap-Driven Occlusive Diseases
The discovery of neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation as a part of the defense mechanisms of the innate immune system has provided new insights into the pathologies of various diseases. Nowadays, NET formation is considered a double-edged sword, as NET remnants induce inflammation and aggregated NETs (aggNETs) reportedly occlude tubular structures like vessels or ducts. In this regard, elucidating the mechanism of NET-dependent occlusions is crucial for the development of new therapeutic approaches.
  • 818
  • 22 Apr 2022
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