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Topic Review
Deep-Brain Stimulation for Essential Tremor
Tremor is a prevalent symptom associated with multiple conditions, including essential tremor (ET), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), stroke and trauma. The surgical management of tremor evolved from stereotactic lesions to deep-brain stimulation (DBS), which allowed safe and reversible interference with specific neural networks. 
  • 649
  • 17 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Deep Brain Stimulation
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an invasive but established neurosurgical procedure that involves the implantation of one or more electrodes into a targeted brain area, an implantable pulse generator (IPG), and an extension connecting the electrode to the IPG. The IPG contains the battery and circuitry, which generate the electrical signal that is delivered to the targeted brain structure. The DBS system allows for the delivery of electrical pulses to specific areas of the brain with minimal effects on nearby regions.
  • 647
  • 19 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Nuclear Factor-E2-Related Factor 2 in Neurodegenerative Disorders
Nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a short-lived protein that works as a transcription factor and is related to the expression of many cytoprotective genes involved in xenobiotic metabolism and antioxidant responses. Nrf2 is a key regulator of OS defense and research supports a protective and defending role of Nrf2 against neurodegenerative conditions.
  • 645
  • 10 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Insular Cortex and Neuropathic pain
The insular cortex is an important information integration center. Numerous imaging studies have documented increased activity of the insular cortex in the presence of neuropathic pain; however, the specific role of this region remains controversial. 
  • 642
  • 19 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Neurocognitive Psychiatric and Neuropsychological Alterations in Parkinson’s Disease
The main histopathological hallmarks of Parkinson’s disease (PD) are the degeneration of the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta and the loss of neuromelanin as a consequence of decreased dopamine synthesis. The destruction of the striatal dopaminergic pathway and blocking of striatal dopamine receptors cause motor deficits in humans and experimental animal models induced by some environmental agents. In addition, neuropsychiatric symptoms such as mood and anxiety disorders, hallucinations, psychosis, cognitive impairment, and dementia are common in PD. These alterations may precede the appearance of motor symptoms and are correlated with neurochemical and structural changes in the brain. 
  • 641
  • 23 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease
Globally, many individuals struggle with Alzheimer’s disease (AD), an unrelenting and incapacitating neurodegenerative condition. Despite notable research endeavors, effective remedies for AD remain constrained, prompting the exploration of innovative therapeutic avenues. Within this context, silica-based nanoplatforms have emerged with pronounced potential due to their unique attributes like expansive surface area, customizable pore dimensions, and compatibility with living systems. These nanoplatforms hold promise as prospective interventions for AD.
  • 641
  • 01 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Trimethylamine N-Oxide in Normal Cognitive Aging
Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), a gut microbiota-derived metabolite from dietary precursors, might emerge as a promising biomarker of cognitive dysfunction within the context of brain aging and NCD. TMAO may increase among older adults, Alzheimer’s disease patients, and individuals with cognitive sequelae of stroke. Higher circulating TMAO would make them more vulnerable to age- and NCD-related cognitive decline, via mechanisms such as promoting neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, and reducing synaptic plasticity and function.
  • 629
  • 21 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Treatment Resistance in Early Psychosis
Treatment resistance is prevalent in early intervention in psychosis services, and causes a significant burden for the individual. A wide range of variables are shown to contribute to treatment resistance in first episode psychosis (FEP). Heterogeneity in illness course and the complex, multidimensional nature of the concept of recovery calls for an evidence base to better inform practice at an individual level. Current gold standard treatments, adopting a ‘one-size fits all’ approach, may not be addressing the needs of many individuals.
  • 626
  • 09 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Disease-Modification in Neurodegenerative Disorders
The clinical failure rate for disease-modifying treatments (DMTs) that slow or stop disease progression has been nearly 100% for the major neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs), with many compounds failing in expensive and time-consuming phase 2 and 3 trials for lack of efficacy. However, as our understanding of NDDs is improving, there is a rise in potentially disease-modifying treatments being brought to the clinic. Further increasing the rational use of mechanistic biomarkers in early phase trials for these (targeted) therapies can increase R&D productivity with a quick win/fast fail approach in an area that has seen a nearly 100% failure rate to date.
  • 619
  • 15 Mar 2021
Topic Review
NK Cell and NK Cell-Based Immunotherapy for Cancer
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive and malignant primary brain tumor in adults. Despite multimodality treatment involving surgical resection, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and tumor-treating fields, the median overall survival (OS) after diagnosis is approximately 2 years and the 5-year OS is poor. Considering the poor prognosis, novel treatment strategies are needed, such as immunotherapies. Natural killer (NK) cell-based immunotherapy involves the new feature of recognizing GBM via differing mechanisms from that of T cell-based immunotherapy. 
  • 619
  • 15 Feb 2023
Topic Review
New Daily Persistent Headache
New daily persistent headache (NDPH) is a primary headache syndrome which can mimic chronic migraine and chronic tension-type headache. The headache is daily and unremitting from very soon after onset (within 3 days at most), usually in a person who does not have a history of a primary headache disorder. The pain can be intermittent, but lasts more than 3 months. Headache onset is abrupt and people often remember the date, circumstance and, occasionally, the time of headache onset. One retrospective study stated that over 80% of patients could state the exact date their headache began. The cause of NDPH is unknown, and it may have more than one etiology. NDPH onset is commonly associated with an infection or flu-like illness, stressful life event, minor head trauma, and extra cranial surgery. Infection or flu-like illness and stressful life event are most often cited. The pathophysiology of NDPH is poorly understood. The syndrome is difficult to treat and may persist for years. The age of onset ranges from 6 to greater than 70 years old, with a mean of 35 years. It is found to be more common in females in both the adult and pediatric populations. NDPH is rare. The Akershus study of chronic headache, a population based cross sectional study of 30,000 persons aged 30–44 years in Norway, found a one-year prevalence of 0.03 percent in the population. In 1986, Vanast was the first author to describe the new daily-persistent headache (NDPH) as a benign form of chronic daily headache (CDH). The criteria for the diagnosis of NDPH were proposed in 1994 (the Silberstein–Lipton criteria) but not included in the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD) until 2004.
  • 615
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Autophagy and Neurodegenerative Diseases
The word autophagy was introduced in late 1963 by the biochemist Christian de Duve [18] and defines a self-degradative cellular pathway whose intent is to degrade and recycle cellular contents. Autophagy exists in three forms that are classified according to their mechanisms and cellular functions: macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA). During microautophagy, the cytosolic material is wrapped and transported directly into the lumen of lysosomes. The main function of microautophagy (mA) is to control cell survival and organellar turnover upon nitrogen restriction. CMA has an important role in protein quality control (QC) and is responsible for degrading a specific subset of oxidized and damaged proteins. The selectivity of CMA is conferred by the existence of a specific pentapeptide motif (KFERQ), which is present in the amino acid sequences of all CMA substrates. Undoubtedly, the best-characterized and most prevalent form of autophagy in mammalian cells is macroautophagy (hereafter referred to as autophagy). Autophagy is responsible to capture a wide group of intracellular components, ranging from low-dimensional biological macromolecules to whole organelles, and bring them to the lysosomal compartment. Its physiological value rests on two main activities. On the one hand, autophagy acts as a QC mechanism that reshapes the cell, ensuring the removal of damaged proteins and organelles [27]. Selective forms of autophagy can specifically target mitochondria (mitophagy), the endoplasmic reticulum (ER; reticulophagy), peroxisomes (pexophagy), and lipid droplets (lipophagy).
  • 612
  • 16 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Machine Learning in Intraoperative Neurophysiological Monitoring
Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring (IONM) is being applied to a wide range of surgical fields as a diagnostic tool to protect patients from neural injuries that may occur during surgery. However, several contributing factors complicate the interpretation of IONM, and it is labor- and training-intensive. Meanwhile, machine learning (ML)-based medical research has been growing rapidly, and many studies on the clinical application of ML algorithms have been published.
  • 610
  • 24 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Neuropathic Pain in Elderly
Neuropathic pain due to a lesion or a disease of the somatosensory system often affects older people presenting several comorbidities. Moreover, elderly patients are often poly-medicated, hospitalized and treated in a nursing home with a growing risk of drug interaction and recurrent hospitalization.
  • 605
  • 19 May 2021
Topic Review
Analysis of Running in Wilson’s Disease
Wilson’s disease (WD) is a rare, recessively inherited deficit of copper transportation leading to increased serum levels of free copper and progressive copper intoxication of multiple organs. In the central nervous system (CNS) the basal ganglia, the cerebellum as well as brainstem nuclei are mainly disturbed. A broad spectrum of neurological symptoms as parkinsonian gait, tremor, dysarthria, dystonia, and chorea results.
  • 603
  • 19 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Tics and Emotions
Tics can be associated with neurological disorders and are thought to be the result of dysfunctional basal ganglia pathways. In Tourette Syndrome (TS), excess dopamine in the striatum is thought to excite the thalamo-cortical circuits, producing tics. When external stressors activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, more dopamine is produced, furthering the excitation of tic-producing pathways. Emotional processing structures in the limbic are also activated during tics, providing further evidence of a possible emotional component in motor ticking behaviors.
  • 601
  • 17 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Regular Physical Activity in Neuroprotection
One of the major obstacles that prevents an effective therapeutic intervention against ischemic stroke is the lack of neuroprotective agents able to reduce neuronal damage; this results in frequent evolution towards a long-term disability with limited alternatives available to aid in recovery. Nevertheless, various treatment options have shown clinical efficacy. Neurotrophins such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), widely produced throughout the brain, but also in distant tissues such as the muscle, have demonstrated regenerative properties with the potential to restore damaged neural tissue. Neurotrophins play a significant role in both protection and recovery of function following neurological diseases such as ischemic stroke or traumatic brain injury. Unfortunately, the efficacy of exogenous administration of these neurotrophins is limited by rapid degradation with subsequent poor half-life and a lack of blood–brain-barrier permeability. Regular exercise seems to be a therapeutic approach able to induce the activation of several pathways related to the neurotrophins release. Exercise, furthermore, reduces the infarct volume in the ischemic brain and ameliorates motor function in animal models increasing astrocyte proliferation, inducing angiogenesis and reducing neuronal apoptosis and oxidative stress. One of the most critical issues is to identify the relationship between neurotrophins and myokines, newly discovered skeletal muscle-derived factors released during and after exercise able to exert several biological functions. Various myokines (e.g., Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1, Irisin) have recently shown their ability to protects against neuronal injury in cerebral ischemia models, suggesting that these substances may influence the degree of neuronal damage in part via inhibiting inflammatory signaling pathways.
  • 601
  • 20 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Botulinumtoxin A for Post-herpetic neuralgia
Post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN) is a very painful neuropathic condition, which occurs after nerve injury (e.g., demyelination, loss of axons, small-fiber-degeneration, reorganization in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, and neuroplastic central changes) due to herpes-zoster-virus infection and is defined as a local neuropathic pain lasting for more than three months following the initial acute zoster infection.  Adjunctive local BoNT A injection is a promising option for severe PHN, as a safe and effective therapy in long-term management for chronic neuropathic pain.
  • 600
  • 16 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Substrate Selection in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Neurodegenerative diseases express multiple clinical phenotypes. A diversity of clinical phenotypes has been attributed to the ability of amyloidogenic proteins  to acquire multiple, self-replicating states referred to as strains. This article put forward a new hypothesis referred to as substrate selection hypothesis, according to which individual strains selectively recruit protein isoforms with a subset of posttranslational modifications that fit into strain-specific structures. As a result of selective recruitment, strain-specific patterns of posttranslational modifications are formed, giving rise to unique disease phenotypes.
  • 597
  • 24 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Therapy for Post-Stroke Spasticity
ESWT is safe and free of undesirable side effects. The mechanism of action of ESWT on muscles affected by spasticity is still unknown. To date, no standard parameters of ESWT in post-stroke spasticity regarding intensity, frequency, location, and the number of sessions has been established.
  • 593
  • 24 Apr 2021
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