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Topic Review
Childhood Overweight and Cold Climates
The objective of this entry is to analyze the characteristics of multicomponent interventions aimed at reducing overweight and obesity in children in territories with an extremely cold climate.
  • 467
  • 11 May 2021
Topic Review
Triggers of Pediatric Migraine
There are three triggers or risk factors for migraines in children and adolescents: stress, sleep poverty, and alimentation (including diet and obesity). Clinicians should advise patients to avoid certain triggers, such as stress and sleep disorders, and make a few conservative dietary changes.
  • 466
  • 26 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Clinical Pediatric Brain Tumors
Brain tumors are the most common solid tumors in children and are associated with high mortality. The most common childhood brain tumors are grouped as low-grade gliomas (LGG), high grade gliomas (HGG), ependymomas, and embryonal tumors, according to the World Health Organization (WHO).
  • 466
  • 21 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in PANS/PANDAS in Children
Several treatment options have been proposed for pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome/pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder associated with streptococcal infection (PANS/PANDAS). Still, no clear therapeutic protocol has been recognized to prevent these neuropsychiatric diseases. 
  • 464
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Management of Harlequin Ichthyosis
Harlequin ichthyosis (HI) is a life-threatening genetic disorder that largely affects the skin of infants. HI is the most severe form of the autosomal recessive disorder known as ichthyosis. It is caused by mutations in the A12 cassette (lipid-transporter adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette A12). Neonates affected by this disease are born with specific morphological characteristics, the most prominent of which is the appearance of platelet keratotic scales separated by erythematous fissures. The facial features include eclabium, ectropion, a distinct flattened nose, and dysplastic ears. A common finding among those with HI is impaired skin barrier function.
  • 464
  • 23 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Complication of Risk Pediatric Foreign Body Ingestion
The optimal management of foreign body ingestion in children depends on an understanding of its natural history and risks of complication. The large majority of swallowed foreign bodies pass uneventfully through the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. However, complications, sometimes serious, may occur. The wide variety among patients and among the foreign bodies that they swallow makes creation of universal protocols complicated and difficult. Thus, the evaluation of a patient after potential foreign body ingestion requires a balanced approach, identifying and addressing potentially problematic ingestions without overtesting or overtreating. 
  • 463
  • 27 May 2022
Topic Review
The Role of Urinary Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin
Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) is the most frequent congenital urinary tract malformation and an important risk factor for urinary tract infections (UTIs). Up to 50% of children with VUR may develop reflux nephropathy (RN), and the diagnosis and monitoring of renal scars are invasive and costly procedures, so it is paramount to find a non-invasive and accurate method to predict the risk of renal damage. Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) has already proven to be a good predictive biomarker in acute kidney injuries.
  • 460
  • 06 May 2023
Topic Review
Sleep–Wake Rhythm Influence Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Children
Development of the sleep–wake rhythm has a significant effect on the physical and mental development of children. The sleep–wake rhythm is controlled by aminergic neurons in the brainstem’s ascending reticular activating system, which is associated with synaptogenesis and the promotion of brain development. Before evaluating a sleep disorder in a child, it is of paramount importance to evaluate, as a prerequisite, whether ‘the parent or guardian has a stable sleep rhythm’ or whether ‘the parent or guardian pays attention to the adequate environment in which the child sleeps well at night’. The sleep rhythm of the child changes with that of his or her guardian.
  • 460
  • 13 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Sequelae of Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Pediatric obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) has been shown to not only affect the quality of sleep, but also overall health in general. Untreated or inadequately treated OSA can lead to long-term sequelae involving cardiovascular, endothelial, metabolic, endocrine, neurocognitive, and psychological consequences. The physiological effects of pediatric OSA eventually become pathological. As the complex effects of pediatric OSA are discovered, they must be identified early so that healthcare providers can be better equipped to treat and even prevent them. Ultimately, adequate management of OSA improves overall quality of life.
  • 459
  • 07 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Newborn Hearing Screening
Universal neonatal screening is the most useful procedure for early detection of congenital deafness. Neonatal hearing screening facilitates a confirmed diagnosis of neonatal deafness in the first 4 months of life while without this practice the diagnosis is usually delayed up to 35 m. In the same way, the treatment of children diagnosed from neonatal screening begins before 7 m, and in its absence, it is delayed on average up to 35 m.
  • 451
  • 09 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Gut Microbiota and Chronic Kidney Disease
The human intestinal microbiota is a highly intricate structure with a crucial role in promoting health and preventing disease. It consists of diverse microbial communities that inhabit the gut and contribute to essential functions such as food digestion, nutrient synthesis, and immune system development. The composition and function of the gut microbiota are influenced by a variety of factors, including diet, host genetics, and environmental features. In pediatric patients, the gut microbiota is particularly dynamic and vulnerable to disruption from endogenous and exogenous factors.
  • 451
  • 23 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Prevention and Treatment of Oral Complications
Phase I, before initiation of cancer treatment (review of medical record and oral history, planning of preventive strategies and dental treatments); phase II, from initiation of chemo-radiotherapy to 30–45 days post-therapy (maintenance of oral hygiene, reinforcement of parent/patient education in oral care, prevention and treatment of complications derived from cancer treatment); phase III, from 1 year to lifetime (periodic check-ups, maintenance, and reinforcement of oral hygiene, dental treatments, symptomatic care of the effects of long-term cancer treatment). The use of standardised protocols can avoid or minimise oral cancer complications and the side effects of cancer therapies. 
  • 449
  • 29 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Premature Infants Born
After birth, infants born after <25 weeks’ gestation develop respiratory and hemodynamic instability due to their immature physiology and anatomy. Successful stabilization at birth has the potential to reduce morbidities and mortalities, while suboptimal DR care could increase long-term sequelae. 
  • 447
  • 13 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Pain in Fetuses, Neonates and Children
Pain can be defined as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage”. Pain consists of two features: nociception and emotional reaction.
  • 447
  • 08 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Celiac Disease and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus in Children
Celiac disease (CD) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are two diseases intensively studied in all age groups, with an increasing incidence at the global level, possibly due to the increased awareness of the diseases and their accurate diagnosis and as a consequence of the new research and innovation technologies that have appeared in medicine. The first is a controllable condition found in approximately 1% of the entire population in the form of a reaction to environmental stimuli affecting individuals with genetic susceptibility, causing gluten intolerance, gastrointestinal and extradigestive symptoms, starting from subclinical stages and culminating in severe malabsorption. On the other hand, lupus is an autoimmune disease with chameleon-like symptoms and found mainly in the female sex, which leaves its clinical mark on most organs, from the skin, eyes, and kidneys to the cardiovascular, pulmonary, neurological, osteoarticular, and hematological systems. Celiac disease (CD) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are two diseases intensively studied in all age groups, with an increasing incidence at the global level, possibly due to the increased awareness of the diseases and their accurate diagnosis and as a consequence of the new research and innovation technologies that have appeared in medicine. The first is a controllable condition found in approximately 1% of the entire population in the form of a reaction to environmental stimuli affecting individuals with genetic susceptibility, causing gluten intolerance, gastrointestinal and extradigestive symptoms, starting from subclinical stages and culminating in severe malabsorption. On the other hand, lupus is an autoimmune disease with chameleon-like symptoms and found mainly in the female sex, which leaves its clinical mark on most organs, from the skin, eyes, and kidneys to the cardiovascular, pulmonary, neurological, osteoarticular, and hematological systems.
  • 444
  • 09 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Juvenile Psoriatic Arthritis
Juvenile psoriatic arthritis (JPsA) accounts for 1–7% of all cases of juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) and its definition has been a matter of controversy among pediatric rheumatologists for many years. The traditional attribution of JPsA to the spondyloarthropathy group was challenged in the early 1990s, whereas demonstrations of its heterogenous nature have led to questions about its identification as a distinct category in JIA classification.
  • 442
  • 07 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Asthma Inception in Children
Asthma is the most frequent chronic childhood disease: the mean worldwide symptom prevalence of current wheezing in the last 12 months is about 13% in adolescents (13–14 years) and 11% in children (6–7 years). It is thus not uncommon for these two prevalent diseases to coincide in a considerable number of children; if the prevalence remained the same as in the general population there should be approximately 2% of obese, asthmatic children. If asthma favoured the development of obesity or vice versa, then this figure would have to be even higher.
  • 433
  • 15 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Impact of Monoclonal Antibodies in Pediatric Cancer
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), as the name implies, are clonal antibodies that bind to the same antigen. mAbs are broadly used as diagnostic or therapeutic tools for neoplasms, autoimmune diseases, allergic conditions, and infections.  
  • 429
  • 04 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Pediatric Asthmatic Medications
Asthma is a respiratory condition often stemming from childhood, characterized by difficulty breathing and/or chest tightness. Current treatment options for both adults and children include beta-2 agonists, inhaled corticosteroids (ICS), and leukotriene modifiers (LTM). Despite recommendations by the Global Initiative for Asthma, a substantial number of patients are unresponsive to treatment and unable to control symptoms. Pharmacogenomics have increasingly become the front line of precision medicine, especially with the recent use of candidate gene and genome- wide association studies (GWAS). Screening patients preemptively could likely decrease adverse events and therapeutic failure. However, research in asthma, specifically in pediatrics, has been low. Although numerous adult trials have evaluated the impact of pharmacogenomics and treatment response, the lack of evidence in children has hindered progress towards clinical application. 
  • 426
  • 02 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Mechanisms of Action of Probiotics in Gastrointestinal Diseases
Functional gastrointestinal diseases (FGIDs) are characterized by recurring gastrointestinal symptoms, including abdominal pain, vomiting or constipation, that can ultimately cause non-optimal development, disrupt digestion or create lifelong or mortal complications. Scientific evidence suggests that both gastrointestinal diseases (GIDs) and FGIDs are related to gut microbial dysbiosis, gastrointestinal motility disturbance, visceral hypersensitivity, as well as impairment of mucosal immune function and central nervous system processing. Based on this, the use of probiotic bacteria, mainly those strains belonging to Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium and probiotic yeast such as Saccharomyces, have emerged as potential therapeutic agents in GIDs.
  • 426
  • 21 Jun 2023
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