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Topic Review
Spotlight on MicroPulse Laser Trabeculoplasty in Open-Angle Glaucoma
Glaucoma is the most common cause of permanent blindness in the world, caused by a progressive optic neuropathy. Patients with glaucoma are often treated with topical medicines therapy in order to reduce intra-ocular pressure (IOP). On the other hand, laser therapies, with the introduction of Argon Laser Trabeculoplasty (ALT) and successively with Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty (SLT), were reported to be effective in IOP control, with low adverse effect rates. In recent years, the micropulse laser, a subthreshold laser technology, was introduced with the goal of reducing side effects while maintaining the effectiveness of the laser treatments. Several studies focused on Micropulse Diode Laser Trabeculoplasty (MDLT) in open-angle glaucoma, to evaluate its effectiveness and possible side effects. Promising results were reported, but irradiation circumstances have not been standardized yet and its role as a substitute for previous laser techniques has yet to be defined.
  • 586
  • 08 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Dry Eye Syndrome
Dry eye syndrome (DES) results from insufficient tear production or excessive evaporation of tears, and is associated with symptoms such as dry eye surface, discomfort, visual impairment, and aching. It also leads to an increase in the osmolality of the tear film and inflammation of the ocular surface. The prevalence of DES is estimated as 5–30% in people older than 50 years.
  • 585
  • 22 Apr 2021
Topic Review
The Role of Atropine in Preventing Myopia Progression
Myopia, also known as ‘nearsightedness’, is the one of the most common refractive diseases worldwide, and its prevalence is likely to rapidly increase in the near future.
  • 585
  • 30 May 2022
Topic Review
Uveal Melanoma Tumors
Uveal melanoma (UM), a rare form of melanoma, is the most common intraocular cancer in adults.
  • 575
  • 26 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Deep Learning in Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography
Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) provides depth-resolved visualization of the retinal microvasculature without intravenous dye injection. It facilitates investigations of various retinal vascular diseases and glaucoma by assessment of qualitative and quantitative microvascular changes in the different retinal layers and radial peripapillary layer non-invasively, individually, and efficiently. Deep learning (DL), a subset of artificial intelligence (AI) based on deep neural networks, has been applied in OCT-A image analysis and achieved good performance for different tasks, such as image quality control, segmentation, and classification. DL technologies have further facilitated the potential implementation of OCT-A in eye clinics in an automated and efficient manner and enhanced its clinical values for detecting and evaluating various vascular retinopathies.
  • 572
  • 13 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography
Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) is a non-invasive imaging modality used to visualize the retinal layers and vessels which shows encouraging results in the study of various neurological conditions, including dementia.
  • 562
  • 25 Mar 2022
Topic Review
A Brief Clinical Overview of Retinitis Pigmentosa
Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a hereditary disease that causes the degeneration of photoreceptor cells in the retina, starting with the rods, leading to a gradual loss of vision over time. RP is the most common type of inherited retinal dystrophy and affects over 1.5 million people worldwide, leading to a high burden on patients and society. Common symptoms of RP include nyctalopia and gradual loss of peripheral vision, which can ultimately lead to blindness. RP is one of the primary causes of visual disability and blindness in individuals under 60 years old.
  • 560
  • 12 May 2023
Topic Review
Prevention of AMD Onset
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) represents the leading cause of irreversible blindness in elderly people, mostly after the age of 65. The progressive deterioration of visual function in patients affected by AMD has a significant impact on quality of life and has also high social costs. Many studies showed that a higher dietary intake of nutrients, such as lutein, zeaxanthin, beta carotene, omega-3 fatty acids and zinc, reduced the risk of early AMD. Regarding lifestyle habits, the association between smoking and AMD is currently accepted. Finally, retinal damage caused by ultraviolet rays and blue light is also worthy of attention. 
  • 556
  • 12 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Typical and Atypical Optic Neuritis
Optic neuritis (ON) is an inflammatory condition involving the optic nerve. Several important typical and atypical ON variants are now recognized. Typical ON has a more favorable prognosis; it can be idiopathic or represent an early manifestation of demyelinating diseases, mostly multiple sclerosis (MS). The atypical spectrum includes entities such as antibody-driven ON associated with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody disease (MOGAD), chronic/relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy (CRION), and sarcoidosis-associated ON. Appropriate and timely diagnosis is essential to rapidly decide on the appropriate treatment, maximize visual recovery, and minimize recurrences. 
  • 555
  • 20 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Ocular Delivery of Therapeutic Proteins
Therapeutic proteins, including monoclonal antibodies, single chain variable fragment (ScFv), crystallizable fragment (Fc), and fragment antigen binding (Fab), have accounted for one-third of all drugs on the world market. In particular, these medicines have been widely used in ocular therapies in the treatment of various diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration, corneal neovascularization, diabetic retinopathy, and retinal vein occlusion. The formulation of these biomacromolecules is challenging due to their high molecular weight, complex structure, instability, short half-life, enzymatic degradation, and immunogenicity, which leads to the failure of therapies. Various efforts have been made to overcome the ocular barriers, providing effective delivery of therapeutic proteins, such as altering the protein structure or including it in new delivery systems. These strategies are not only cost-effective and beneficial to patients but have also been shown to allow for fewer drug side effects. Researchers discuss several factors that affect the design of formulations and the delivery of therapeutic proteins to ocular tissues, such as the use of injectable micro/nanocarriers, hydrogels, implants, iontophoresis, cell-based therapy, and combination techniques. In addition, other approaches are briefly discussed, related to the structural modification of these proteins, improving their bioavailability in the posterior segments of the eye without affecting their stability. Future research should be conducted toward the development of more effective, stable, noninvasive, and cost-effective formulations for the ocular delivery of therapeutic proteins. In addition, more insights into preclinical to clinical translation are needed.
  • 554
  • 18 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Federated Learning Applications  in Ocular Imaging
Advances in artificial intelligence deep learning (DL) have made tremendous impacts on the field of ocular imaging. Specifically, DL has been utilised to detect and classify various ocular diseases on retinal photographs, optical coherence tomography (OCT) images, and OCT-angiography images. In order to achieve good robustness and generalisability of model performance, DL training strategies traditionally require extensive and diverse training datasets from various sites to be transferred and pooled into a “centralised location”. However, such a data transferring process could raise practical concerns related to data security and patient privacy. Federated learning (FL) is a distributed collaborative learning paradigm which enables the coordination of multiple collaborators without the need for sharing confidential data. This distributed training approach has great potential to ensure data privacy among different institutions and reduce the potential risk of data leakage from data pooling or centralisation.
  • 553
  • 06 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Treatment of Fungal Endophthalmitis
 In recent, large case series of fungal endophthalmitis (FE), the most frequent etiologic agents for all types of FE are molds (usually Aspergillus species, while Fusarium is the prevalent etiology in keratitis-related FE). Candida was the organism found in most cases of endogenous FE. Lately, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was increasingly used for the diagnosis of FE, allowing for very high diagnostic sensitivity, while the costs become more affordable with time. The most important shortcoming of PCR—the limited number of pathogens that can be simultaneously searched for—may be overcome by newer techniques, such as next-generation sequencing. There are even hopes of searching for genetic sequences that codify resistance to antifungals.
  • 552
  • 17 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Neurodegeneration and Death of Retinal Ganglion Cells
Retinal ganglion cells (RGC) transmit light and visual information to the brain via the long axons that form the optic nerve. RGCs are the measurable endpoints in current research into experimental therapies and diagnosis in multiple ocular pathologies, like glaucoma. RGC subtype classifications are based on morphological, functional, genetical, and immunohistochemical aspects.
  • 551
  • 22 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Pathophysiology of Glaucoma
Glaucoma is a progressive neurodegenerative disease which constitutes the main frequent cause of irreversible blindness. 
  • 550
  • 21 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Retinal Ganglion Cell Distress
Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are a population of neurons of the central nervous system (CNS) extending with their soma to the inner retina and with their axons to the optic nerve. Glaucoma represents a group of neurodegenerative diseases where the slow progressive death of RGCs results in a permanent loss of vision. To date, although Intra Ocular Pressure (IOP) is considered the main therapeutic target, the precise mechanisms by which RGCs die in glaucoma have not yet been clarified.
  • 548
  • 09 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Mycotic Keratitis
Mycotic or fungal keratitis (FK) is a sight-threatening infection of the cornea by filamentous fungi or yeasts. 
  • 545
  • 23 Apr 2021
Topic Review Video
Toxic External Exposure Leading to Ocular Surface Injury
The surface of the eye is directly exposed to the external environment, protected only by a thin tear film, and may therefore be damaged by contact with ambient particulate matter, liquids, aerosols, or vapors. In the workplace or home, the eye is subject to accidental or incidental exposure to cleaning products and pesticides. Organic matter may enter the eye and cause infection. Ocular surface damage can trigger a range of symptoms such as itch, discharge, hyperemia, photophobia, blurred vision, and foreign body sensation. Toxin exposure can be assessed clinically in multiple ways, including via measurement of tear production, slit-lamp examination, corneal staining, and conjunctival staining. At the cellular level, environmental toxins can cause oxidative damage, apoptosis of corneal and conjunctival cells, cell senescence, and impaired motility. Outcomes range from transient and reversible with complete healing to severe and sight-compromising structural changes.
  • 545
  • 13 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Eye Pathological Angiogenesis
Angiogenesis is the new formation of vessels. Physiologically, it is essential for tissue repair; while its aberrant presentation, it may produce pathological disorders, such as Proliferative Diabetic Retinoptahy, Age Related Macular Degeneration, among many others. 
  • 543
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Application of Different Biodegradable Ocular Drug Delivery Systems
The complex nature of the ocular drug delivery barrier presents a significant challenge to the effective administration of drugs, resulting in poor therapeutic outcomes. To address this issue, it is essential to investigate new drugs and alternative delivery routes and vehicles. One promising approach is the use of biodegradable formulations to develop potential ocular drug delivery technologies. These include hydrogels, biodegradable microneedles, implants, and polymeric nanocarriers such as liposomes, nanoparticles, nanosuspensions, nanomicelles, and nanoemulsions. 
  • 543
  • 09 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Surgical Temporary Ocular Discomfort Syndrome
The term STODS (Surgical Temporary Ocular Discomfort Syndrome) has been coined to describe the ocular surface perturbations induced by surgery. As one of the most important refractive elements of the eye, Guided Ocular Surface and Lid Disease (GOLD) optimization is fundamental to success in achieving refractive outcomes and mitigating STODS. Effective GOLD optimization and the prevention/treatment of STODS requires an understanding of the molecular, cellular, and anatomic factors that influence ocular surface microenvironment and the associated perturbations induced by surgical intervention. 
  • 538
  • 08 Mar 2023
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