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Topic Review
Co-Occurrence of Substance Use and HIV
Combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) has greatly reduced the severity of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders in people living with HIV (PLWH); PLWH are more likely than the general population to use drugs and suffer from substance use disorders (SUDs) and to exhibit risky behaviors that promote HIV transmission and other infections. Dopamine-boosting psychostimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine are some of the most widely used substances among PLWH.
  • 555
  • 01 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Toxin Induced Parkinsonism
Patients with Parkinson’s disease admitted to the hospital have unique presentations. This unique subset of patients requires a multidisciplinary approach with a knowledge-based care team that can demonstrate awareness of complications specific to Parkinson’s disease to reduce critical care admissions, morbidity, and mortality. Early recognition of toxic exposures, medication withdrawals, or medication-induced symptoms can reduce morbidity and mortality.
  • 554
  • 11 May 2023
Topic Review
Localization Value of Somatosensory Auras
An aura is a subjective experience felt in the initial phase of a seizure. Studying auras is relevant as they can be warning signs for people with epilepsy. The incidence of aura tends to be underestimated due to misdiagnosis or underrecognition by patients unless it progresses to motor features. Also, auras are associated with seizure remission after epilepsy surgery and are an important prognostic factor, guiding the resection site and improving surgical outcomes. Somatosensory auras (SSAs) are characterized by abnormal sensations on one or more body parts that may spread to other parts following a somatotopic pattern.
  • 552
  • 31 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Endocannabinoid System–Glia Axis
The endocannabinoid system (ECS), comprising endogenous cannabinoids, receptors, and enzymes, has emerged as a critical modulator of sleep patterns, influencing both the initiation and maintenance of sleep. Concurrently and once considered tolerant support cells, glial cells are now recognized as active contributors to neuroinflammatory processes and synaptic regulation. The intricate relationships between the ECS and glia-mediated immune responses in the context of sleep regulation present a novel avenue for understanding the broader implications of disrupted sleep on neural health. The bidirectional communication within the ECS–Glia Axis intersects with sleep regulation, creating a dynamic relationship between neuroinflammation and sleep–wake patterns. Sleep disturbances often coincide with increased neuroinflammation, and chronic activation of the ECS–Glia Axis may contribute to disrupted sleep. Conversely, alterations in sleep architecture influence the activity of the ECS–Glia Axis, suggesting a reciprocal modulation.
  • 551
  • 12 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Effects of Dietary Components on Mood and Cognition
A growing body of literature suggests dietary components can support mood and cognitive function through the impact of their bioactive or sensorial properties on neural pathways. Of interest, objective measures of the autonomic nervous system—such as those regulating bodily functions related to heartbeat and sweating—can be used to assess the acute effects of dietary components on mood and cognitive function. Technological advancements in the development of portable and wearable devices have made it possible to collect autonomic responses in real-world settings, creating an opportunity to study how the intake of dietary components impacts mood and cognitive function at an individual level, day-to-day. 
  • 550
  • 30 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Nuclear Factor-like 2 Regulation and Inflammation
The transcription factor Nrf2 (nuclear factor [erythroid-derived 2]-like 2) is of major importance as the defense instrument against OS and alters anti-inflammatory activities related to different pathological states.
  • 547
  • 08 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Language Induced Epilepsy
Language-induced epilepsy is a subcategory of reflex epilepsy during which specific language stimuli appear to be the triggering mechanism. Specifically, higher mental activities, such as reading, speaking, writing, calculating, concentrating, playing chess, reading music, and playing a musical instrument, among others, have been reported as triggering focal or generalized seizures, under certain circumstances. To avoid misconceptions, it is deemed important here to exclude seizures triggered by non-verbal higher brain activities related to spatial processing and ideation or movements from the category of language-induced epilepsy, as such are considered praxis-induced seizures.
  • 544
  • 15 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Anxiety and Depression in Children with Chronic Headache
It has been observed that there is a higher-than-expected risk of anxiety and depression in children with chronic headache and also an increased risk for the persistence of headache in patients with anxiety and depression. The relationship between chronic headache and psychological co-morbidities is complex, interrelated and bi-directional. The close relationship between the disorders is evident in patients attending clinics with chronic headache, but it is also observed in population-based studies. The evidence for the co-existence of these disorders and the possible shared pathophysiologic, clinical and epidemiological characteristics are illustrated. 
  • 543
  • 24 Apr 2023
Topic Review
The Significance of Biomarkers in Neurodegenerative Disease Pathology
With the inexorable aging of the global populace, neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) like Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) pose escalating challenges, which are underscored by their socioeconomic repercussions. A pivotal aspect in addressing these challenges lies in the elucidation and application of biomarkers for timely diagnosis, vigilant monitoring, and effective treatment modalities.
  • 538
  • 20 Nov 2023
Topic Review
PPARγ in Neuroinflammatory and Demyelinating Events
Increasing evidence suggests that the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily, plays an important role in physiological processes in the central nervous system (CNS) and is involved in cellular metabolism and repair. Cellular damage caused by acute brain injury and long-term neurodegenerative disorders is associated with alterations of these metabolic processes leading to mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation. Chronic inflammatory damage to the lipid-rich, insulating myelin sheath surrounding axons impairs nerve conduction. Demyelination—the pathological process of myelin sheath loss from axons—can be caused by direct injury to the oligodendrocytes that produce the myelin and provide trophic and metabolic support to axon. PPARγ agonists have demonstrated the potential to be effective treatments for CNS diseases in preclinical models, most drugs have failed to show efficacy in clinical trials of neurodegenerative diseases due likely to the insufficient brain exposure of these PPARγ agonists. Leriglitazone is a novel, blood–brain barrier (BBB)-penetrant PPARγ agonist that is being developed to treat CNS diseases.
  • 536
  • 15 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Neuromodulation for Craniofacial Pain and Headaches
Headaches and facial pain are highly prevalent diseases but are often difficult to treat. Though there have been significant advances in medical management, many continue to suffer from refractory pain. Neuromodulation has been gaining interest for its therapeutic purposes in many chronic pain conditions, including headaches and facial pain. There are many potential targets of neuromodulation for headache and facial pain, and some have more robust evidence in favor of their use than others.
  • 535
  • 04 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Delivery of Neurotrophic Factors’ and Associated Challenges
Neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), multiple sclerosis (MS), spinal cord injury (SCI), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), are characterized by acute or chronic progressive loss of one or several neuronal subtypes. However, despite their increasing prevalence, little progress has been made in successfully treating these diseases. Research has focused on neurotrophic factors (NTFs) as potential regenerative therapy for neurodegenerative diseases.
  • 534
  • 10 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Microorganisms in the Etiopathogenesis of Demyelinating Diseases
Multiple sclerosis (MS), neuromyelitis optica (NMO) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody disease (MOGAD) are inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) with a multifactorial aetiology. Environmental factors are important for their development and microorganisms could play a determining role. They can directly damage the CNS, but their interaction with the immune system is even more important. The possible mechanisms involved include molecular mimicry, epitope spreading, bystander activation and the dual cell receptor theory. The role of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) in MS has been definitely established, since being seropositive is a necessary condition for the onset of MS. EBV interacts with genetic and environmental factors, such as low levels of vitamin D and human endogenous retrovirus (HERV), another microorganism implicated in the disease. Many cases of onset or exacerbation of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) have been described after infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, EBV and human immunodeficiency virus; however, no definite association with a virus has been found. A possible role has been suggested for Helicobacter pylori, in particular in individuals with aquaporin 4 antibodies. The onset of MOGAD could occur after an infection, mainly in the monophasic course of the disease. 
  • 533
  • 26 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Approaches for Drug Delivery to the Brain
Brain cancers and neurodegenerative diseases are on the rise, treatments for central nervous system (CNS) diseases remain limited. Despite the significant advancement in drug development technology with emerging biopharmaceuticals like gene therapy or recombinant protein, the clinical translational rate of such biopharmaceuticals to treat CNS disease is extremely poor. The blood–brain barrier (BBB), which separates the brain from blood and protects the CNS microenvironment to maintain essential neuronal functions, poses the greatest challenge for CNS drug delivery. Many strategies have been developed over the years which include local disruption of BBB via physical and chemical methods, and drug transport across BBB via transcytosis by targeting some endogenous proteins expressed on brain-capillary. Drug delivery to brain is an ever-evolving topic, although there were multiple review articles in literature, an update is warranted due to continued growth and new innovations of research on this topic.
  • 530
  • 11 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Symptoms and Neurological Manifestations among COVID-19 Patients
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a newly emerged coronavirus, has sparked a global pandemic with its airborne transmission and ability to infect with asymptomatic patients. The disease state, including its pneumonia-like symptoms, is called COVID-19, as it was a coronavirus discovered in 2019. The pathophysiology is thought to relate to the binding of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors in the body. These receptors are widely expressed in various body organs such as the lungs, the heart, the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), and the brain.
  • 526
  • 09 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Pathogenesis of Migraine
Migraine, a long-term headache disorder punctuated by episodic bouts, is characterized by repeated instances of severe headaches that present with unique associated symptoms. These include photophobia, a heightened sensitivity to light, and phonophobia, an increased sensitivity to sound. The classification of episodic migraine—an intermittent but recurring form of this disorder—hinges on the frequency with which a patient experiences these debilitating headaches.
  • 526
  • 11 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Tension-Type Headache in Children and Adolescents
In pediatric neurology, tension-type headache (TTH) represents a very common type of primary headache during the pediatric age. Despite the high prevalence of TTH, this diagnosis is often underestimated in childhood, with relevant difficulties in the differential diagnosis of TTH from secondary and primary headache manifestations. Even among primary headaches, a clinical overlap is not so infrequent in children: migraine attacks could present tension headache-like features while tension-type headaches may display migraine-like symptoms as well. Several variables play a role in the complex trajectory of headache evolution, such as hormonal changes during adolescence, triggers and genetic and epigenetic factors. 
  • 525
  • 22 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Synaptic Dysfunction in Alzheimer’s Disease
Disruption in the activity of synapses and the loss of synapses are regarded as early events in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease that precede the buildup of Aβ deposits in the brain or the clinical expression of the disease. Synaptic loss is evident by the reduction of synaptic proteins in early Alzheimer’s disease and frank atrophy. The extent of synaptic decline in brains at postmortem has been shown to be associated with cognitive function in persons with early Alzheimer’s disease or mild cognitive impairment. The overstimulation of extra-synaptic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and the associated synaptic redox stress cause an influx of extracellular calcium, which initiates a series of downstream pathways involving Cdk5/dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1), caspases, and p-tau. This culminates in mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis, and synaptic loss and dysfunction.
  • 525
  • 22 May 2023
Topic Review
Astrocyte Therapy in Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons. While neuronal dysfunction is central to PD, astrocytes also play important roles, both positive and negative, and such roles have not yet been fully explored. 
  • 525
  • 12 Oct 2023
Topic Review
SCT in Parkinson’s Disease and Atypical Parkinsonian Disorders
Stem cell-based therapies (SCT) may hold greater promise in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson’s Disease (PD), atypical parkinsonian disorders (APD). Initial randomized trials, particularly in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) have been promising, but further research is required to determine the feasibility, safety, and efficacy of this novel approach. 
  • 524
  • 08 Mar 2023
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