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Topic Review
Traumatic Brachial Plexus
Traumatic brachial plexus injuries are rare but serious consequences of major traumas. Pre-ganglionic lesions are considered irreparable, while post-ganglionic injuries can be potentially treated if an early diagnosis is available.
  • 1.4K
  • 18 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Atypical Positional Vertigo
Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo is the most frequent cause of vertigo. As its name indicates, it is characterized by vertigo episodes of sudden onset and end, triggered by changes in head’s position with regard to gravity. It is located in the labyrinth, and its cause is mechanical. However, this is an etiologic diagnosis, reached after questioning and examining the patient. Based on what patients report, the duration of symptoms lasts seconds; however, many overestimate the duration of the vertiginous sensation. The trigger effect of positional changes is a key issue to be addressed. A great variability of autonomic symptoms, including nausea and vomiting, can accompany BPPV. Gait instability, headache, and additional neurologic complaints are potential red flags in the differential diagnosis. With a defined position trigger effect, it is the neurologist’s job to perform an examination to confirm the diagnosis of paroxysmal positional vertigo (PPV), and by virtue of the vertigo duration and nystagmus characteristics, to determine lesion localization (peripheral versus central) and to design a management plan.
  • 1.4K
  • 26 May 2022
Topic Review
Mitophagy and the Brain
Mitophagy is a form of macroautophagy, were mitochondria and their contents are ubiquitinated, engulfed, and removed through lysosome degradation.
  • 1.4K
  • 08 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a common brain disease characterized as a long-lasting propensity to engender epileptic seizures. These are defined by the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), as a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms, due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain. The ILAE also describes that patients with epilepsy, besides neurobiological problems, also face cognitive, psychological, and social issues. Epileptic seizures can be classified depending on the onset (focal, generalized or unknown) and depending on the etiology (genetic, structural, infectious, metabolic, immune, unknown, or with more than one etiology). Epileptogenesis is when a physiological and functional brain develops recurrent and unprovoked seizures, due to abnormal biological alterations. Epileptogenesis encompasses: The moment a precipitating injury (such as stroke or traumatic brain injury) or event (as status epilepticus (SE) or febrile seizure) occurs; the latent period between this epileptogenic insult and a modified epileptic brain (having spontaneous unprovoked seizures); and the mechanisms that occur during chronic epilepsy. Despite that the knowledge about the epileptogenesis process has significantly increased, most of the current drugs for epilepsy are used to treat symptoms, meaning to stop the seizures. These drugs, named AEDs, do not prevent or cure epilepsy. Therefore, finding drugs that work as antiepileptogenic, interreacting with the process of epilepsy development, is fundamental.
  • 1.4K
  • 16 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Appropriate Vestibular Stimulation in Children and Adolescents
The structural development of the vestibular part of the inner ear is completed by birth but its central connections continue to develop until adolescence. Their development is dependent on vestibular stimulation—vestibular experience. Studies have shown that vestibular function, modulated by experience and epigenetic factors, is not solely an instrument for body position regulation, navigation, and stabilization of the head and images but also influences cognition, emotion, the autonomous nervous system and hormones. 
  • 1.4K
  • 27 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Autophagy and Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by the formation of intracellular aggregate composed of heavily phosphorylated tau protein and extracellular deposit of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques derived from proteolysis cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP). Autophagy refers to the lysosomal-mediated degradation of cytoplasmic constituents, which plays a critical role in maintaining cellular homeostasis. Importantly, recent studies reported that dysregulation of autophagy is associated in the pathogenesis of AD, and therefore, autophagy modulation has gained attention as a promising approach to treat AD pathogenesis. In AD, both the maturation of autolysosomes and its retrograde transports have been obstructed, which causes the accumulation of autophagic vacuoles and eventually leads to degenerating and dystrophic neurites function. However, the mechanism of autophagy modulation in APP processing and its pathogenesis have not yet been fully elucidated in AD. In the early stage of AD, APP processing and Aβ accumulation-mediated autophagy facilitate the removal of toxic protein aggregates via mTOR-dependent and -independent pathways. In addition, a number of autophagy-related genes (Atg) and APP are thought to influence the development of AD, providing a bidirectional link between autophagy and AD pathology.
  • 1.4K
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Developmental Coordination Disorder
As described in the American Psychiatric Association’s (Washington, DC, USA) latest edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), the child with Developmental Coordination Disorder （DCD) has motor coordination below expectations for his or her chronologic age and therefore may have been described as “clumsy” and may have had delays in early motor milestones, such as walking and crawling. Difficulties with coordination of either gross or fine motor movements, or both, could interfere with academic achievement or activities of daily living. Coordination difficulties do not relate to a medical condition or disease (e.g., cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, visual impairment, or intellectual disability).
  • 1.4K
  • 06 May 2021
Topic Review
Ageing, Microglia and Mitochondria in Parkinson’s Disease Neurodegeneration
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is an age-related chronic, progressive, multi-system, neurodegenerative disease with an incidence second only to Alzheimer’s disease. A PD diagnosis requires the presence of two core motor features, including diminished movement (bradykinesia), tremor, muscle rigidity, or postural instability, difficulty initiating voluntary movement (akinesia), involuntary eye movements, and blinking, which can take up to 15-20 years to become evident. There is now an increasing level of evidence linking mitochondrial dysfunction, including elevated oxidative stress, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and impaired cellular energy production, with the overactivation and escalation of a microglial mediated proinflammatory immune response, as naturally occurring and damaging interlinked bidirectional and self-perpetuating cycles that share common pathological processes in aging and PD. This research proposes that both chronic inflammation, microglial activation and neuronal mitochondrial impairment should be considered as concurrently influencing each other along a continuum, rather than as separate and isolated linear metabolic events that affect specific aspects of neural processing and brain function.
  • 1.4K
  • 18 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Ion Channels of Nociception
Acute pain plays the vital role protecting our health whereas chronic and pathological pain are debilitating conditions.  However molecular mechanisms of pain which are the keys for pain relief remain largely unaddressed. Nevertheless, new molecular actors with important roles in pain mechanisms are being characterized, such as the mechanosensitive Piezo ion channels. This study presents modern trends and promising advances in the field of molecular mechanisms of pain. 
  • 1.3K
  • 24 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Neuroprotection and Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation
Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation (NIBS) techniques, such as transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) and repetitive Magnetic Transcranial Stimulation (rTMS), are well-known non-pharmacological approaches to improve both motor and non-motor symptoms in patients with neurodegenerative disorders. Their use is of particular interest especially for the treatment of cognitive impairment in Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), as well as axial disturbances in Parkinson’s (PD), where conventional pharmacological therapies show very mild and short-lasting effects. However, their ability to interfere with disease progression over time is not well understood; recent evidence suggests that NIBS may have a neuroprotective effect, thus slowing disease progression and modulating the aggregation state of pathological proteins. 
  • 1.3K
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Headache
Headaches are common complaints in children. The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition (beta version), defines more than 280 types of headaches. Primary headaches refer to independent conditions that cause pain and include migraine, tension-type headaches (TTH) and trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs). Several agents are involved in the pathogenesis of headaches. The factors associated with predisposition to atherosclerosis seem to be particularly important from the clinical point of view. The influence of obesity on the incidence of headaches has been well established. Moreover, idiopathic headaches, especially migraine, are thought to be one of the first signs of disorders in lipid metabolism and atherosclerosis. The risk of migraine increases with increasing obesity in children. Another factor that seems to be involved in both obesity and headaches is the adiponectin level.This review presents the current knowledge on the relationship between obesity and adiponectin and primary headaches.
  • 1.3K
  • 24 Oct 2020
Topic Review
RSTS
The Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome (RSTS) is a rare congenital developmental disorder characterized by a typical facial dysmorphism, distal limb abnormalities, intellectual disability, and many additional phenotypical features. It occurs at between 1/100,000 and 1/125,000 births.
  • 1.3K
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Alzheimer’s Disease
Many observational and clinical studies have shown that consumption of diets rich in plant polyphenols have beneficial effects on various diseases such as cancer, obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Animal and cellular studies have indicated that these polyphenolic compounds contribute to such effects. The representative polyphenols are epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate in tea, chlorogenic acids in coffee, resveratrol in wine, and curcumin in curry. The results of human studies have suggested the beneficial effects of consumption of these foods on NDDs, espacially Alzheimer's disease and cellular animal experiments have provided molecular basis to indicate contribution of these representative polyphenols to these effects. This article provides updated information on the effects of these foods and their polyphenols on Alzheimer's disease with discussions on mechanistic aspects of their actions mainly based on the findings derived from basic experiments.
  • 1.3K
  • 20 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Role of Oligodendrocytes in Autism
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is an early neurodevelopmental disorder that involves deficits in interpersonal communication, social interaction, and repetitive behaviors. Although ASD pathophysiology is still uncertain, alterations in the abnormal development of the frontal lobe, limbic areas, and putamen generate an imbalance between inhibition and excitation of neuronal activity. Interestingly, recent findings suggest that a disruption in neuronal connectivity is associated with neural alterations in white matter production and myelination in diverse brain regions of patients with ASD. 
  • 1.3K
  • 06 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Alpha-Synuclein
Alpha-Synuclein (α-syn) has strong connection with Parkinson’s disease. Parkinson’s disease (PD) is considered the most common disorder of synucleinopathy, which is characterised by intracellular inclusions of aggregated and misfolded α-syn protein in various brain regions, and the loss of dopaminergic neurons. During the early prodromal phase of PD, synaptic alterations happen before cell death, which is linked to the synaptic accumulation of toxic α-syn specifically in the presynaptic terminals, affecting neurotransmitter release. The oligomers and protofibrils of α-syn are the most toxic species, and their overexpression impairs the distribution and activation of synaptic proteins, such as the SNARE complex, preventing neurotransmitter exocytosis and neuronal synaptic communication. In the last few years, the role of the immune system in PD has been increasingly considered. Microglial and astrocyte activation, the gene expression of proinflammatory factors, and the infiltration of immune cells from the periphery to the central nervous system (CNS) represent the main features of the inflammatory response. One of the actors of these processes is α-syn accumulation.
  • 1.3K
  • 29 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Bruton’s Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in Multiple Sclerosis
B cells play a central role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS), as demonstrated through the success of various B cell-depleting monoclonal antibodies. Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) is a critical molecule in intracellular signaling from the receptor of B cells and receptors expressed in the cells of the innate immune system. BTK inhibitors may be a non-cell-depleting alternative to B cell modulation.
  • 1.3K
  • 12 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Virus-Induced Neuropathogenesis
Viral infections may cause neurological disorders by directly inducing oxidative stress and interrupting immune system function, both of which contribute to neuronal death. Several reports have described the neurological manifestations in Covid-19 patients where, in severe cases of the infection, brain inflammation and encephalitis are common. Recently, extensive research-based studies have revealed and acknowledged the clinical and preventive roles of melatonin in some viral diseases. Melatonin has been shown to have antiviral properties against several viral infections which are accompanied by neurological symptoms. The beneficial properties of melatonin relate to its properties as a potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunoregulatory molecule and its neuroprotective effects.
  • 1.3K
  • 09 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Vitamins and Neurodegenerative Disease
Acquiring the recommended daily allowance of vitamins is crucial for maintaining homeostatic balance in humans and other animals. A deficiency in or dysregulation of vitamins adversely affects the neuronal metabolism, which may lead to neurodegenerative diseases. In this article, we discuss how novel vitamin-based approaches aid in attenuating abnormal neuronal functioning in neurodegeneration-based brain diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Prion disease. Vitamins show their therapeutic activity in Parkinson’s disease by antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activity. In addition, different water- and lipid-soluble vitamins have also prevented amyloid beta and tau pathology. On the other hand, some results also show no correlation between vitamin action and the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases. Some vitamins also exhibit toxic activity too. 
  • 1.3K
  • 29 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Chronic Nightmare in Psychiatric Disorders
Chronic nightmares are very common in psychiatric disorders, affecting up to 70% of patients with personality or post-traumatic stress disorders. In other psychiatric disorders, the relationships with nightmares are poorly known. This review aimed to clarify the relationship between nightmares and both mood and psychotic disorders.
  • 1.3K
  • 23 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Type I Diabetes Mellitus
A considerable endeavor had taken place in order to understand the associated challenges for children and adolescents with Specific Learning Disorder (SLD) and Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) but also in order to describe the necessary skills and approaches that the care givers have to develop to assist both children and parents.
  • 1.3K
  • 14 Feb 2021
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