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Chieffo, D.P.R. Developmental Coordination Disorder. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9257 (accessed on 16 November 2024).
Chieffo DPR. Developmental Coordination Disorder. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9257. Accessed November 16, 2024.
Chieffo, Daniela Pia Rosaria. "Developmental Coordination Disorder" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9257 (accessed November 16, 2024).
Chieffo, D.P.R. (2021, May 01). Developmental Coordination Disorder. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9257
Chieffo, Daniela Pia Rosaria. "Developmental Coordination Disorder." Encyclopedia. Web. 01 May, 2021.
Developmental Coordination Disorder
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/children8040270

As described in the American Psychiatric Association’s (Washington, DC, USA) latest edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), the child with Developmental Coordination Disorder （DCD) has motor coordination below expectations for his or her chronologic age and therefore may have been described as “clumsy” and may have had delays in early motor milestones, such as walking and crawling. Difficulties with coordination of either gross or fine motor movements, or both, could interfere with academic achievement or activities of daily living. Coordination difficulties do not relate to a medical condition or disease (e.g., cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, visual impairment, or intellectual disability).

neurorehabilitation cognitive enhancement in children tech mediated rehabilitation developmental coordination disorders virtual reality

1. Conventional Treatment in DCD

A plausible hypothesis to explain the compromised motor ability of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) suggests a substantial deficit in their ability to utilize internal models for motor control. A dysfunction in this mode of control is thought to compromise motor learning capabilities [1].

Children with DCD have problems generating and/or monitoring a mental (action) representation of intended actions, termed the “internal modeling deficit” (IMD) hypothesis [2].

Internal modeling deficits (IMDs) have been proposed as a neurological cause of DCD [1]. According to the IMD hypothesis, the sensory-motor integration in the internal model is dysfunctional in children with DCD, which reduces their ability to use predictive motor control [1][3]. 

Two approaches target the Internal Modeling: Mental Imagery (MI) and Action Observation (AO). According to Adams [4], the above mentioned are two faces of the same coin. Several studies combining MI and AO seem promising [5][6]. According to Marshall [7], an integrated MI/AO program through digital technology would be more promising, taking into account that children with DCD have difficulties in programming strategies by themselves only, while no difficulty is proved in learning once they have observed the correct strategy.

Other studies [8] showed that mental rotation (MR) ability is implicated in the successful execution of a motor task. This finding leads to the necessity of programming strategies and tools pointing to work on mental imagery in the treatment of DCD.

2. Mental Imagery

A mental image is a product of cognitive activity which enables to represent reality through recall, manipulation, reproduction of objects and events without sensorial stimulation [9]. People can experience mental images in all sensorial modalities. Therefore, if we can perceive in an auditorily or olfactorily way, “we can also have auditory, olfactory, tactile mental imagery” [10]. Nevertheless, the most common sensory modality through which we experience MI is vision [11]. Motor MI refers to a reproduction of a motor sequence of movements without perceptually witnessing that movement.

MI is not a single ability but emerges from a crossroads of singles abilities. Working memory has an important role in MI. According to Kosslyn [12], in order to generate mental images, a recall of images from long term memory to working memory is necessary. The image is then put into the “visuo-spatial-sketch pad” [13]. Working memory plays a central role in mental rotation tasks.

The same neuronal mechanisms underpinning simulation (imagery) are involved in real execution of actions [14]. As an evidence in visual MI, which is the most studied, earliest visual motor cortex (areas 17 and 18) is involved [15]. Other studies [8] have shown that mental rotation and motor performance tasks may share a similar subprocess.

MI have been investigated to examine the cognitive aspects linked to action and movement control. The main advantage in using MI in rehabilitation trainings is the possibility to significantly increase the number of task repetitions since we use a mental recall of motor tasks. Wilson [16] pioneered studies investigating the direct impact of MI training on DCD providing interesting results. Later, Adams [4] demonstrated the theoretically principled protocol for MI training in DCD. By using Internal Modelling of movements, the child is facilitated in predicting the consequences of movements. This is possible because, during the training, he has acquired information on his internal feeling of the movement to make predictions on movement outcomes.

3. Technology in DCD Rehabilitation

In the last decades, many tech tools enabling motor skills treatment in Neurodevelopmental Disorders and in the field of DCD were developed. This has been possible because of a growing interest in tailored tools, able to meet patient specific needs. In such a framework, technological tools emerge as motivating and stimulating devices, adaptable to a single child’s needs.

Telemedicine is currently developing in Italy and the National Healthcare System (NHS) has not exploited all the possibilities it offers yet [17]. In the field of Pediatric Medicine, telemedicine has the advantage of providing care and training in a non-medical environment [18][19]. Moreover, telemedicine allows custom-made training procedures, making daily interventions possible when needed. Research has contributed to a better understanding of the process underpinning children compliance to treatment. A game-like training setting has proved to be one of the most effective features for children in terms of motivation to the treatment.

In the last 20 years, gaming industry flourished and there was a combination between electronic games and neurorehabilitation research. “Serious Games” were born from this combination. With the term Serious Games we are referring to games whose peculiarity is not mere entertainment, but the empowerment of cognitive and motor function [20]. Video games training for rehabilitative purpose has been widely validated both in motor rehabilitation [21] and in cognitive empowerment and rehabilitation in several disorders [22][23][24] ensuring a similar efficacy compared to conventional treatments.

Regarding VR Intervention, Wilson [25] distinguishes between off the shelf tools (such as Wii fit) and specifically designed tools for rehabilitation (as Tele Rehab). Several studies have shown the effectiveness of off the shelf tools, combined with the convenience in terms of costs and usability: Nintendo Wii fit [26][27], Sony’s Playstation Eye Toy [28], Xbox 360 Kinect, and Playstation 3 [29].

Other studies explored the advantages of a specific design for tools in rehabilitation such as the AR Serious Game “Athynos” [30], an AR tool specifically developed to target cognitive/motor functions in Dispraxia.

4. Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality in DCD Treatment

Among various technologies explored to work on DCD, one recent and largely unexplored technology is Serious Games combined with VR and AR.

VR is defined as a three dimensional immersive and interactive experience occurring in real time [31]. AR can be described as a real environment which is ‘augmented’ by means of virtual objects through the use of computer graphic technology. Compared to VR in which the users cannot see the real world, AR allows users to see the real world but virtual objects are superimposed [32].

VR has been successfully employed in the neurorehabilitation of several disease in adulthood after brain injury or stroke [33][34][35][36] and in the case of neurodegenerative diseases [37][38]. In childhood, VR and AR have been found effective in several conditions such as Autism Spectrum Disorder [39][40], Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) [41][42][43][44], or cerebral palsy [45][46][47][48].

AR has been found effective in empowering coordination skills in children. A study by Avila Pesantez [30] investigated the effects of an AR Training using a specifically designed tool called Athynos. Athynos was a prototype designed according to practice standards proposed by experts in the field of Dispraxia. The objectives inspiring designers were the improvement of hand-eye coordination skills, feedback, interactivity and problem solving.

Despite the good chances offered by these technologies, only few studies applied VR and AR to DCDs. In 1987, Mc Clurg [49] proved that tridimensional object manipulation would lead to visuospatial skills improvement. In the 90’s Mc Comas [50] investigated the generalization effects of the improvement in visuospatial abilities gained through VR, confirming the generalization of the effects outside of the VR environment. The abovementioned results need to be further investigated [51] especially with regard to the extension of the generalization effect to more complex tasks.

In his study, Wilson [25] highlighted that VR could have an impact on different dimensions considered by the International Classification of Functioning [52]: Level of impairment, activity performance and skills, Participation, environment, personal factors (such as motivation or interests). With regard to training oriented to the empowerment of motor programming skills and mental rotation skills, VR enables children to manipulate 3D objects having an immediate feedback on task success into a realistic context. This represents one of most important advantages of VR technology in ecological terms.

References

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  2. Gabbard, C.; Bobbio, T. The inability to mentally represent action may be associated with performance deficits in children with developmental coordination disorder. Int. J. Neurosci. 2011, 121, 113–120.
  3. Wilson, P.H.; Ruddock, S.; Smits-Engelsman, B.; Polatajko, H.; Blank, R. Understanding performance deficits in developmental coordination disorder: A meta-analysis of recent research. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 2013, 55, 217–228.
  4. Adams, I.L.J.; Smits-Engelsman, B.; Lust, J.M.; Wilson, P.H.; Steenbergen, B. Feasibility of Motor Imagery Training for Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder—A Pilot Study. Front. Psychol. 2017, 8, 1271.
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