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Topic Review
Prefrontal Cortex in Schizophrenia
Disturbances in cognitive function are crucial symptoms of schizophrenia. Impairments in attention, memory, and executive functions, i.e., the ability to plan, initiate and regulate goal-directed behaviour are present throughout the entire course of the illness. 
  • 668
  • 07 Feb 2023
Topic Review
MicroRNAs in Prion Diseases
Prion is an atypical etiological agent composed solely of a misfolded protein—(proteinaceous infectious particle), which affects mammals causing a group of slow, progressive, neurodegenerative, lethal, untreatable disorders known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs).
  • 666
  • 30 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Post-Traumatic Cerebral Infarction
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common diagnosis requiring acute hospitalization. Long-term, TBI is a significant source of health and socioeconomic impact in the United States and globally. The goal of clinicians who manage TBI is to prevent secondary brain injury. In this population, post-traumatic cerebral infarction (PTCI) acutely after TBI is an important but under-recognized complication that is associated with negative functional outcomes.
  • 665
  • 20 Feb 2024
Topic Review
Neuropathological Criteria for Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a complex pathological condition characterized by neurodegeneration, as a result of repeated head traumas. Currently, the diagnosis of CTE can only be assumed postmortem. Thus, the clinical manifestations associated with CTE are referred to as traumatic encephalopathy syndrome (TES), for which diagnostic multiple sets of criteria can be used.
  • 663
  • 13 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Genetic Basis of Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative movement disorder worldwide, which is primarily characterized by motor impairments. Even though multiple hypotheses have been proposed over the decades that explain the pathogenesis of PD, presently, there are no cures or promising preventive therapies for PD. This could be attributed to the intricate pathophysiology of PD and the poorly understood molecular mechanism. To address these challenges comprehensively, a thorough disease model is imperative for a nuanced understanding of PD’s underlying pathogenic mechanisms.
  • 661
  • 15 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Supramarginal Resection for Glioblastoma
Glioblastoma are the most common primary malignant brain tumors with a highly infiltrative behavior. The extent of resection of the enhancing component has been shown to be correlated to survival. Recently, it has been proposed to move the resection beyond the contrast-enhanced portion into the MR hyper intense tissue which typically surrounds the tumor, the so-called supra marginal resection (SMR).
  • 659
  • 01 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Netrin Receptors
Netrin–1 are chemotropic proteins that belong to the family of laminin-related secreted proteins.
  • 658
  • 30 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Parkinson’s Disease, SARS-CoV-2 and Frailty
Literature has long established the association between aging and frailty, with emerging evidence pointing to a relationship between frailty and SARS-CoV-2 contagion. The possible neurological consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection, associated with physical and cognitive frailty, could lead to a worsening of Parkinson’s disease (PD) in infected patients or—more rarely—to an increase in the Parkinsonian symptomatology. A possible link between those clinical pictures could be identified in vitamin D deficiency, while the whole process would appear to be associated with alterations in the microbiota–intestine–brain axis that fall within the α-Synuclein Origin site and Connectome (SOC) model, and allow for the identification of a body-first PD and a brain-first PD. The model of care for this condition must consider intrinsic and extrinsic variables so that care by a multidisciplinary team can be successfully predicted. 
  • 658
  • 14 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Endocannabinoid System in Neurodegenerative Diseases
The altered expression of endocannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors has been observed in neurodegenerative conditions. Accordingly, it has been assumed that endocannabinoid-degradative enzymes, CB1 and CB2 receptors, and the modulation of the activity of endogenous cannabinoids represent valuable therapeutic targets in neurodegenerative diseases, as well as in other diseases such as epilepsy, stroke, inflammation, multiple sclerosis, traumatic brain injuries and psychiatric illnesses.
  • 657
  • 01 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage and Delayed Cerebral Ischemia
Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a type of hemorrhagic stroke resulting from the rupture of an arterial vessel within the brain. Unlike other stroke types, SAH affects both young adults (mid-40s) and the geriatric population. Patients with SAH often experience significant neurological deficits, leading to a substantial societal burden in terms of lost potential years of life. 
  • 657
  • 28 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Pathophysiology of Childhood-Onset Myasthenia
Myasthenia gravis (MG) is understood to be a neuromuscular disorder caused by an immune disturbance at the neuromuscular junction, which results in symptoms such as muscle weakness and fatigue.
  • 657
  • 24 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Reasons for Neuron Copper Deficiency in Alzheimer Patients
Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that eventually leads the affected patients to die. The appearance of senile plaques in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients is known as a main symptom of this disease. The plaques consist of different components, and according to numerous reports, their main components include beta-amyloid peptide and transition metals such as copper. In this disease, metal dyshomeostasis leads the number of copper ions to simultaneously increase in the plaques and decrease in neurons. Copper ions are essential for proper brain functioning, and one of the possible mechanisms of neuronal death in Alzheimer’s disease is the copper depletion of neurons. However, the reason for the copper depletion is as yet unknown.
  • 656
  • 14 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Endogenous Cardiac Steroids in Bipolar Disorder
Type I bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe psychiatric illness that manifests as extreme variations in mood and energy, usually labelled as mania and depression, interspersed over a euthymic or dysthymic baseline. Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe psychiatric illness with a poor prognosis and problematic, suboptimal, treatments. Treatments, borne of an understanding of the pathoetiologic mechanisms, need to be developed in order to improve outcomes. Dysregulation of cationic homeostasis is the most reproducible aspect of BD pathophysiology. Correction of ionic balance is the universal mechanism of action of all mood stabilizing medications. Endogenous sodium pump modulators (collectively known as endogenous cardiac steroids, ECS) are steroids which are synthesized in and released from the adrenal gland and brain. These compounds, by activating or inhibiting Na+, K+-ATPase activity and activating intracellular signaling cascades, have numerous effects on cell survival, vascular tone homeostasis, inflammation, and neuronal activity. 
  • 656
  • 21 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Role of Glutathione Precursors in Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative illness resulting in progressive motor impairment and cognitive dysfunction. Most PD cases are sporadic, and only a low percentage is related to mutations in a few genes, causing familial PD. As in other prevalent neurodegenerative disorders, aging is the principal risk factor for developing this condition. The protein cysteinome is crucial in cellular regulation and plays unexpected roles in the aging of complex organisms, which show cumulative somatic mutations, telomere attrition, epigenetic modifications, and oxidative dysregulation, culminating in cellular senescence. The cysteine thiol groups are highly redox-active, allowing high functional versatility as structural disulfides, redox-active disulfides, active-site nucleophiles, proton donors, and metal ligands to participate in multiple regulatory sites in proteins. Also, antioxidant systems control diverse cellular functions, including the transcription machinery, which partially depends on the catalytically active cysteines that can reduce disulfide bonds in numerous target proteins, driving their biological integration.
  • 656
  • 13 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Neuroimaging and Neuroradiology of Acute Ischemic Stroke
Among the high prevalence of cerebrovascular diseases, acute ischemic stroke stands out, representing a significant worldwide health issue with important socio-economic implications. Prompt diagnosis and intervention are important milestones for the management of this multifaceted pathology, making understanding the various stroke-onset symptoms crucial. A key role in acute ischemic stroke management is emphasizing the essential role of a multi-disciplinary team, therefore, increasing the efficiency of recognition and treatment. Neuroimaging and neuroradiology have evolved dramatically over the years, with multiple approaches that provide a higher understanding of the morphological aspects as well as timely recognition of cerebral artery occlusions for effective therapy planning. 
  • 656
  • 27 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Combination Drug Therapy for Chronic Neuropathic Pain
Chronic neuropathic pain (NP) is an increasingly prevalent disease and leading cause of disability which is challenging to treat. Several distinct classes of drugs are currently used for the treatment of chronic NP, but each drug targets only narrow components of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, bears limited efficacy, and comes with dose-limiting side effects. Multimodal therapies have been increasingly proposed as potential therapeutic approaches to target the multiple mechanisms underlying nociceptive transmission and modulation. However, while preclinical studies with combination therapies showed promise to improve efficacy over monotherapy, clinical trial data on their efficacy in specific populations are lacking and increased risk for adverse effects should be carefully considered. Drug-drug co-crystallization has emerged as an innovative pharmacological approach which can combine two or more different active pharmaceutical ingredients in a single crystal, optimizing pharmacokinetic and physicochemical characteristics of the native molecules, thus potentially capitalizing on the synergistic efficacy between classes of drugs while simplifying adherence and minimizing the risk of side effects by reducing the doses.
  • 654
  • 19 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Deprivation
In parallel with the growing incidence of endogenous depression, researchers in sleep science have discovered multiple links between rapid eye movement (REM) sleep patterns and endogenous depression. Prolonged periods of REM sleep are associated with different psychiatric disorders, including endogenous depression. In addition, a growing body of experimental work confidently describes REM sleep deprivation (REM-D) as the underlying mechanism of most pharmaceutical antidepressants, proving its utility as either an independent or adjuvant approach to alleviating the symptoms of endogenous depression.
  • 653
  • 21 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Migraine Comorbidities
Migraine is a primary headache, with a high prevalence and morbidity among young adults, especially women, that significantly reduces the quality of life. Approximately 1 billion people worldwide suffer from migraine and this disorder remains the second leading cause of disability worldwide, after low back pain, despite considerable progress in diagnosis and treatment. The incidence of migraine attacks peaks between early and mid-adolescence, although attacks can occur at any age. 
  • 653
  • 30 Jan 2024
Topic Review
E2F4DN Transgenic Mice
E2F4 was initially described as a transcription factor with a key function in the regulation of cell quiescence. The regulation of E2F4 is complex, as it can be chemically modified through acetylation, from which researchers present evidence in the brain, as well as methylation, and phosphorylation. The phosphorylation of E2F4 within a conserved threonine motif induces cell cycle re-entry in neurons, while a dominant negative form of E2F4 (E2F4DN), in which the conserved threonines have been substituted by alanines, has been shown to act as a multifactorial therapeutic agent for Alzheimer’s disease (AD).
  • 652
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
GABA Neurons on Dopamine Neurons
Dopamine (DA) is the key regulator of reward behavior. The DA neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and their projection areas, which include the prefrontal cortex (PFC), nucleus accumbens (NAc), and amygdala, play a primary role in the process of reward-driven behavior induced by the drugs of addiction, including nicotine and alcohol. Nicotine directly activates DA neurons and indirectly activates glutamate and GABA neurons, enhancing DA release within the NAcShell. GABAergic neurons regulate DA neurons.
  • 649
  • 28 Feb 2022
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