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Topic Review
Specific microRNAs Alter Autophagy and SCI Outcome
The treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI) is currently a major challenge, with a severe lack of effective therapies for yielding meaningful improvements in function. Therefore, there is a great opportunity for the development of novel treatment strategies for SCI. The modulation of autophagy, a process by which a cell degrades and recycles unnecessary or harmful components (protein aggregates, organelles, etc.) to maintain cellular homeostasis and respond to a changing microenvironment, is thought to have potential for treating many neurodegenerative conditions, including SCI. The discovery of microRNAs (miRNAs), which are short ribonucleotide transcripts for targeting of specific messenger RNAs (mRNAs) for silencing, shows prevention of the translation of mRNAs to the corresponding proteins affecting various cellular processes, including autophagy. 
  • 817
  • 25 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Small Vessel Disease
Small vessel disease (SVD) is one of the most frequent pathological conditions which lead to dementia. Biochemical and neuroimaging might help correctly identify the clinical diagnosis of this relevant brain disease. The microvascular alterations which underlie SVD have common origins, similar cognitive outcomes, and common vascular risk factors.
  • 817
  • 31 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage in Patients with SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a life-threatening condition associated with high mortality and substantial long-term morbidity. The SARS-CoV-2 virus is a new pathogen that causes a disease with variable clinical manifestations. Although the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is associated with hypercoagulopathy, patients may also present with cerebral hemorrhage, including SAH. 
  • 817
  • 08 Oct 2022
Topic Review
The Downregulation of Opioid Receptors and Neuropathic Pain
Neuropathic pain (NP) refers to pain caused by primary or secondary damage or dysfunction of the peripheral or central nervous system, which seriously affects the physical and mental health of 7–10% of the general population. The etiology and pathogenesis of NP are complex; as such, NP has been a hot topic in clinical medicine and basic research for a long time, with researchers aiming to find a cure by studying it. Opioids are the most commonly used painkillers in clinical practice but are regarded as third-line drugs for NP in various guidelines due to the low efficacy caused by the imbalance of opioid receptor internalization and their possible side effects.
  • 817
  • 08 May 2023
Topic Review
AD and Multiple Fluid Biomarkers
Biomarkers are molecules that are variable in their origin, nature, and mechanism of action; they are of great relevance in biology and also in medicine because of their specific connection with a single or several diseases. Biomarkers are of two types, which in some cases are operative with each other. Fluid biomarkers, started around 2000, are generated in fluid from specific proteins/peptides and miRNAs accumulated within two extracellular fluids, either the central spinal fluid or blood plasma. The switch of these proteins/peptides and miRNAs, from free to segregated within extracellular vesicles, has induced certain advantages including higher levels within fluids and lower operative expenses. Imaging biomarkers, started around 2004, are identified in vivo upon their binding by radiolabeled molecules subsequently revealed in the brain by positron emission tomography and/or other imaging techniques. A positive point for the latter approach is the quantitation of results, but expenses are much higher. 
  • 816
  • 28 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Role of Astrocytes in Pathophysiology of Lafora Disease
Lafora disease Lafora disease (LD) is a rare disorder caused by loss of function mutations in either the EPM2A or NHLRC1 gene. The initial symptoms of this condition are most commonly epileptic seizures, but the disease progresses rapidly with dementia, neuropsychiatric symptoms, and cognitive deterioration and has a fatal outcome within 5–10 years after onset. The hallmark of the disease is the accumulation of poorly branched glycogen in the form of aggregates known as Lafora bodies in the brain and other tissues. The astrocytic glycogen accumulation drives the neuroinflammatory phenotype of LD but not the increased susceptibility to epilepsy, which might be attributable to neuronal lafora bodies (LBs).
  • 815
  • 24 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Methylxanthines and Neurodegenerative Diseases
Methylxanthines (MTX) are purine derived xanthine derivatives. Methylxanthines are also known to have anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties, mediate changes in lipid homeostasis and have neuroprotective effects.
  • 814
  • 12 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Central Nervous System Diseases and the Probenecid
Probenecid is an old uricosuric agent used in clinics to treat gout and reduce the renal excretion of antibiotics. In recent years, probenecid has gained attention due to its ability to interact with membrane proteins such as TRPV2 channels, organic anion transporters, and pannexin 1 hemichannels, which suggests new potential therapeutic utilities in medicine. Some current functions of probenecid include their use as an adjuvant to increase the bioavailability of several drugs in the Central Nervous System (CNS). Numerous studies also suggest that this drug has important neuroprotective, antiepileptic, and anti-inflammatory properties, as evidenced by their effect against neurological and neurodegenerative diseases. In these studies, the use of probenecid as a Panx1 hemichannel blocker to reduce neuroinflammation is highlighted since neuroinflammation is a major trigger for diverse CNS alterations.
  • 813
  • 01 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Therapeutic Use for Botulinum Neurotoxins
Botulism has been known for about three centuries, and since its discovery, botulinum toxin has been considered one of the most powerful toxins. Several medical applications have been discovered, among which the treatment of spasticity stands out. 
  • 812
  • 19 May 2021
Topic Review
Protective Role of NRF2
Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (NRF2) is the major modulator of the xenobiotic-activated receptor (XAR) and is accountable for activating the antioxidative response elements (ARE)-pathway modulating the detoxification and antioxidative responses of the cells.
  • 812
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Guillain-Barré Syndrome in COVID-19 Pandemic
Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) is considered as one of the peripheral nervous system diseases usually present with lower motor neuron lesion signs: muscle atrophy, weakness, fasciculation, hypotonia, and hyporeflexia. COVID-19 is a systemic disorder that typically presents with fever and respiratory symptoms. Numerous case reports have indicated an association between the incidence of GBS and previous SARS-CoV-2 infection, which preceded GBS onset by up to four weeks. Therefore, a postinfectious dysregulation of the immune system, caused by SARS-CoV2, was found to be the most probable trigger.
  • 811
  • 19 Apr 2022
Topic Review
α-Synuclein Strains in Parkinson’s Disease
Like many neurodegenerative diseases, Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by the formation of proteinaceous aggregates in brain cells. In PD, those proteinaceous aggregates are formed by the α-synuclein (αSyn) and are considered the trademark of this neurodegenerative disease. In addition to PD, αSyn pathological aggregation is also detected in atypical Parkinsonism, including Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB), Multiple System Atrophy (MSA), as well as neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation, some cases of traumatic brain injuries, and variants of Alzheimer’s disease. Collectively, these (and other) disorders are referred to as synucleinopathies, highlighting the relation between disease type and protein misfolding/aggregation. Despite these pathological relationships, however, synucleinopathies cover a wide range of pathologies, present with a multiplicity of symptoms, and arise from dysfunctions in different neuroanatomical regions and cell populations. Strikingly, αSyn deposition occurs in different types of cells, with oligodendrocytes being mainly affected in MSA, while aggregates are found in neurons in PD. If multiple factors contribute to the development of a pathology, especially in the cases of slow-developing neurodegenerative disorders, the common presence of αSyn aggregation, as both a marker and potential driver of disease, is puzzling.
  • 811
  • 03 Aug 2023
Topic Review
T Cell Chemotaxis and Infiltration in Glioblastoma
Glioblastoma is an immunologically ‘cold’ tumor, which are characterized by absent or minimal numbers of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs). For those tumors that have been invaded by lymphocytes, they are profoundly exhausted and ineffective. While many immunotherapy approaches seek to reinvigorate immune cells at the tumor, this requires TILs to be present. 
  • 811
  • 04 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Insulin Resistance Causes Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with cognitive decline. Despite worldwide efforts to find a cure, no proper treatment has been developed yet, and the only effective countermeasure is to prevent the disease progression by early diagnosis. The reason why new drug candidates fail to show therapeutic effects in clinical studies may be due to misunderstanding the cause of AD. Regarding the cause of AD, the most widely known is the amyloid cascade hypothesis, in which the deposition of amyloid beta and hyperphosphorylated tau is the cause. However, many new hypotheses were suggested. Among them, based on preclinical and clinical evidence supporting a connection between AD and diabetes, insulin resistance has been pointed out as an important factor in the development of AD. 
  • 810
  • 16 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Adaptive Behaviour in Down Syndrome
Adaptive behaviour is defined as “the effectiveness with which the individual copes with the natural and social demands of his environment”. Such skills in daily functioning are essential for personal and social autonomy and are particularly crucial for individuals with intellectual disabilities, (ID) when cognitive testing is difficult, allowing us to evaluate their mastery of the daily environment.
  • 808
  • 13 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Parkinson’s Disease and Its Treatment
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative condition, most often seen among elderly individuals worldwide. PD symptoms include dysfunctions of the somatomotor system, including rigidity, bradykinesia, postural instability, gait dysfunction, and tremors. Disease progression leads to progressive degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway, leading to significant neuron loss in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) neurons and depletion of dopamine (DA). Non-motor dysfunctions such as dementia, hyposmia, and gastrointestinal abnormalities often accompany disease progression.
  • 808
  • 06 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Delirium in Older Adults
Delirium remains a challenging clinical problem in hospitalized older adults, especially for postoperative patients. This syndrome consists of a disturbance in attention and awareness that develops acutely and tends to fluctuate; it is one of the most well-known diseases and cognitive changes, with manifestation during hospitalization or soon after anesthesia and surgery. This complication frequently occurs in older adult patients, has a high risk of in-hospital death, and increases the length of stay. 
  • 807
  • 08 Mar 2022
Topic Review
α7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor and Neuroinflammation
α7 is a Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChRs) that is composed of five identical α7 subunites.Those receptors are widely expressed in or on various cell types and have diverse functions. In immune cells nAChRs regulate proliferation, differentiation and cytokine release. Specifically, activation of the α7 nAChR reduces inflammation as part of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway.
  • 806
  • 28 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Transcriptional Modulation to BD&Schizophrenia
Recent reports suggest a link between positive regulation of the Hippo pathway with bipolar disorder (BD), and the Hippo pathway is known to interact with multiple other signaling pathways previously associated with BD and other psychiatric disorders. In this study, neuronal-like NT2 cells were treated with amisulpride (10 µM), aripiprazole (0.1 µM), clozapine (10 µM), lamotrigine (50 µM), lithium (2.5 mM), quetiapine (50 µM), risperidone (0.1 µM), valproate (0.5 mM), or vehicle control for 24 h. Genome-wide mRNA expression was quantified and analyzed using gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), with genes belonging to Hippo, Wnt, Notch, TGF- β, and Hedgehog retrieved from the KEGG database. Five of the eight drugs downregulated the genes of the Hippo pathway and modulated several genes involved in the interacting pathways. We speculate that the regulation of these genes, especially by aripiprazole, clozapine, and quetiapine, results in a reduction of MAPK and NFκB pro-inflammatory signaling through modulation of Hippo, Wnt, and TGF-β pathways. We also employed connectivity map analysis to identify compounds that act on these pathways in a similar manner to the known psychiatric drugs. Thirty-six compounds were identified. The presence of antidepressants and antipsychotics validates our approach and reveals possible new targets for drug repurposing
  • 805
  • 09 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Exosomal Noncoding RNAs in Ischemic Stroke
Ischemic stroke is a life-threatening condition that also frequently results in long-term disability. Exosomes and exosomal noncoding RNAs have been found to be involved in the pathophysiological progression of ischemic stroke, including atherosclerosis, apoptosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, and neurovascular remodeling.
  • 805
  • 02 Aug 2022
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