Your browser does not fully support modern features. Please upgrade for a smoother experience.
Subject:
All Disciplines Arts & Humanities Biology & Life Sciences Business & Economics Chemistry & Materials Science Computer Science & Mathematics Engineering Environmental & Earth Sciences Medicine & Pharmacology Physical Sciences Public Health & Healthcare Social Sciences
Sort by:
Most Viewed Latest Alphabetical (A-Z) Alphabetical (Z-A)
Filter:
All Topic Review Biography Peer Reviewed Entry Video Entry
Topic Review
Diagnostic Methods in Parkinson’s Disease and Alzheimer’s Disease
Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) are characterised by the gradual loss of certain groups of nervous system cells, accompanied by enhanced depositions of proteins with important functions in cellular homeostasis. The most common are Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease; in both cases, diagnosis is based on clinical tests with limited capability to discriminate between similar neurodegenerative disorders and detect the early stages of the disease. It is common that by the time a patient is diagnosed with the disease, the level of neurodegeneration is already severe. 
  • 839
  • 22 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Neuroinflammation in AD
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease associated with human aging. Ten percent of individuals over 65 years have AD and its prevalence continues to rise with increasing age.
  • 838
  • 14 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease
Neuroinflammation is a common feature in Alzheimer’s (AD) and Parkinson’s (PD) disease. In the last few decades, a testable hypothesis was proposed that protein-unfolding events might occur due to neuroinflammatory cascades involving alterations in the crosstalk between glial cells and neurons. Here, we tried to clarify the pattern of two of the most promising biomarkers of neuroinflammation in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in AD and PD. This study included cognitively unimpaired elderly patients, patients with mild cognitive impairment, patients with AD dementia, and patients with PD. CSF samples were analyzed for YKL-40 and C-reactive protein (CRP). We found that CSF YKL-40 levels were significantly increased only in dementia stages of AD. Additionally, increased YKL-40 levels were found in the cerebral orbitofrontal cortex from AD patients in agreement with augmented astrogliosis. Our study confirms that these biomarkers of neuroinflammation are differently detected in CSF from AD and PD patients. 
  • 837
  • 04 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Neuropathies in IEMs
Neuropathies are all conditions in which damage to a peripheral nerve causes different symptoms depending on its function.  The most common symptom is usually ice-burn-like neuropathic pain. In some cases neuropathies in children and adolescents can be caused by inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs), with manifestations including developmental delay or regression, seizures,as well as muscle spasticity or hypotonia. 
  • 835
  • 08 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Pathophysiology of Collateral Circulation in Acute Ischemic Stroke
Cerebral collateral circulation is a network of blood vessels which stabilizes blood flow and maintains cerebral perfusion whenever the main arteries fail to provide an adequate blood supply, as happens in ischemic stroke. These arterial networks are able to divert blood flow to hypoperfused cerebral areas. The extent of the collateral circulation determines the volume of the salvageable tissue, the so-called “penumbra”. Clinically, this is associated with greater efficacy of reperfusion therapies (thrombolysis and thrombectomy) in terms of better short- and long-term functional outcomes, lower incidence of hemorrhagic transformation and of malignant oedema, and smaller cerebral infarctions.
  • 835
  • 01 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Ligand-Gated Ion Channels
Gliomas are common primary brain malignancies that remain difficult to treat due to their overall aggressiveness and heterogeneity. Although a variety of therapeutic strategies have been employed for the treatment of gliomas, there is increasing evidence that suggests ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs) can serve as a valuable biomarker and diagnostic tool in the pathogenesis of gliomas. Various LGICs, including P2X, SYT16, and PANX2, have the potential to become altered in the pathogenesis of glioma, which can disrupt the homeostatic activity of neurons, microglia, and astrocytes, further exacerbating the symptoms and progression of glioma. Consequently, LGICs, including purinoceptors, glutamate-gated receptors, and Cys-loop receptors, have been targeted in clinical trials for their potential therapeutic benefit in the diagnosis and treatment of gliomas.
  • 834
  • 24 May 2023
Topic Review
Oxidative Stress and Nrf2 Pathway in Multiple Sclerosis
The pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) suggests that, in genetically susceptible subjects, T lymphocytes undergo activation in the peripheral compartment, pass through the BBB, and cause damage in the CNS. They produce pro-inflammatory cytokines; induce cytotoxic activities in microglia and astrocytes with the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, and other highly reactive radicals; activate B cells and macrophages and stimulate the complement system. Inflammation and neurodegeneration are involved from the very beginning of the disease. They can both be affected by oxidative stress (OS) with different emphases depending on the time course of MS. Thus, OS initiates and supports inflammatory processes in the active phase, while in the chronic phase it supports neurodegenerative processes. A still unresolved issue in overcoming OS-induced lesions in MS is the insufficient endogenous activation of the Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway, which under normal conditions plays an essential role in mitochondria protection, OS, neuroinflammation, and degeneration. Thus, the search for approaches aiming to elevate endogenous Nrf2 activation is capable of protecting the brain against oxidative damage. However, exogenous Nrf2 activators themselves are not without drawbacks, necessitating the search for new non-pharmacological therapeutic approaches to modulate OS.
  • 833
  • 25 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Clinical Spectrum of Dopamine Transporter Deficiency Syndrome
The clinical spectrum of dopamine-related conditions is broad, encompassing movement disorders and neuropsychiatric diseases such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), addiction, and bipolar disorder. Dopamine transporter deficiency syndrome (DTDS) is a primary neurotransmitter disorder due to defective dopamine reuptake. Infantile parkinsonism-dystonia due to dopamine transporter deficiency syndrome (DTDS) is an ultrarare childhood movement disorder caused by biallelic loss-of-function mutations in the SLC6A3 gene.
  • 832
  • 07 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Combination Therapy for Neuropathic Pain
We evaluated the efficacy, tolerability, and safety of double-blinded randomized controlled trials involving only adult participants and comparing combination therapy (CT: ≥2 drugs) with a placebo and/or at least one other comparator with an NP indication. The primary outcome assessed was the proportion of participants reporting ≥50% pain reductions from baseline. The secondary outcome assessed was the proportion of drop-outs due to treatment-emergent adverse events.
  • 831
  • 22 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Management Implications in Adults with ADHD
ADHD is strongly associated with psychiatric comorbidities; it is reported that roughly 80% of adults with ADHD have at least one coexisting psychiatric disorder, with rates of comorbid bipolar disorder (BD) between 5 and 47%, rates of depression between 9 and 16%, and anxiety rates approaching 50% in the adult ADHD population. There is also a notable increased risk of developing psychiatric comorbidities in individuals who have ADHD, including anxiety disorders, substance use disorders, depression, and bipolar disorder.
  • 829
  • 01 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Hypothalamus and the Brainstem in Health and Obesity
The hypothalamus and brainstem are critical components of the homeostatic system that regulates appetite and energy balance. These key brain regions comprise of distinct neuronal populations and nuclei which exerts tremendous control over several facets of energy balance. Importantly, several of these neuronal populations exhibit both overlapping and also contrasting metabolic roles, thereby enabling the CNS to fine tune metabolic functions under physiological conditions.
  • 828
  • 11 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Biological Alterations Underlying Suicidal Behaviour
Suicidal behaviour is a complex, multi-factorial, polygenic and independent mental health problem caused by a combination of alterations and dysfunctions of several biological pathways and disruption of normal mechanisms in brain regions that remain poorly understood and need further investigation to be deciphered. Suicide complexity and unpredictability gained international interest as a field of research. Several studies have been conducted at the neuropathological, inflammatory, genetic, and molecular levels to uncover the triggers behind suicidal behaviour and develop convenient and effective therapeutic or at least preventive procedures.
  • 827
  • 03 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Insulin in the Striatum
Insulin crosses the blood–brain barrier to enter the brain from the periphery. In the brain, insulin has well-established actions as a satiation signal in the hypothalamus, as well as effects on feeding at the level of mesolimbic dopamine neurons in the midbrain. However, insulin also acts in the striatum, a forebrain region that is crucial for movement, mood and motivated behavior. The striatum shows abundant expression of insulin receptors (InsRs) throughout. These receptors are found on interneurons and striatal projections neurons, as well as on glial cells and dopamine axons.
  • 827
  • 30 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Targeting Mitochondria by Plant Secondary Metabolites
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most prevalent and debilitating neurodegenerative conditions, and is currently on the rise. Several dysregulated pathways are behind the pathogenesis of PD; however, the critical targets remain unclear. Accordingly, there is an urgent need to reveal the key dysregulated pathways in PD. Prevailing reports have highlighted the importance of mitochondrial and cross-talked mediators in neurological disorders, genetic changes, and related complications of PD. Multiple pathophysiological mechanisms of PD, as well as the low efficacy and side effects of conventional neuroprotective therapies, drive the need for finding novel alternative agents. Recently, much attention has been paid to using plant secondary metabolites (e.g., flavonoids/phenolic compounds, alkaloids, and terpenoids) in the modulation of PD-associated manifestations by targeting mitochondria. In this line, plant secondary metabolites have shown promising potential for the simultaneous modulation of mitochondrial apoptosis and reactive oxygen species.
  • 825
  • 14 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Sodium nitropusside a novel neuroleptic
Schizophrenia is a severe psychiatric disorder affecting up to 1% of the worldwide population. Available therapy presents different limits comprising lack of efficiency in attenuating negative symptoms and cognitive deficits, typical features of schizophrenia and severe side effects. There is pressing requirement, therefore, to develop novel neuroleptics with higher efficacy and safety. Nitric oxide (NO), an intra- and inter-cellular messenger in the brain, appears to be implicated in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. In particular, underproduction of this gaseous molecule is associated to this mental disease. The latter suggests that increment of nitrergic activity might be of utility for the medication of schizophrenia. Based on the above, molecules able to enhance NO production, as are NO donors, might represent a class of compounds candidates. Sodium nitroprusside (SNP) is a NO donor and is proposed as a promising novel compound for the treatment of schizophrenia.
  • 823
  • 11 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Neurological Teratogenic Effects from SARS-CoV-2
There is no solid evidence of vertical transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Reports that have demonstrated in utero infection, among which one demonstrated placental viremia by RT-PCR, in addition to the presence of inflammatory cells in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), together with neurological manifestations consistent with those described in adult patients, raise concerns
  • 822
  • 22 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Spinal Cord Interneuron Differentiation
The spinal cord is comprised of vastly heterogeneous interneuron populations defined by unique molecular identities, intrinsic properties, connectivity and functional outputs.
  • 822
  • 17 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Metabolic Alterations in Parkinson’s Disease
The PD model flies based on DJ-1β inactivation  exhibited protein metabolism alterations, a shift from the tricarboxylic acid cycle to glycolytic pathway to obtain ATP, together with an increase in the expression of some urea cycle enzymes. Thus, these metabolic changes could contribute to PD pathogenesis and might constitute possible therapeutic targets and/or biomarkers for this disease.
  • 822
  • 27 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Pathomechanisms of Heavy Metal Overload in ASD
Toxic metals may impact brain development directly, as they are able to reach the brain tissue, or through a secondary effect of peripheral pathologies affecting the brain. Toxic metals may interfere with dozens of physiological processes such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, microRNA expression, changing protein properties, or affecting gut-brain signaling by altering the microbiota composition. The autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)-related effects may only occur during a person’s prenatal period. 
  • 819
  • 03 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Brain Arteriovenous Malformations
Brain Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) consist of feeder arteries that amalgamate and form a nidus, shunting the oxygenated blood directly into the venous system without an interposing capillary network.
  • 817
  • 01 Apr 2021
  • Page
  • of
  • 54
Featured Entry Collections
>>

Featured Reprints

>>
Encyclopedia of Digital Society, Industry 5.0 and Smart City
Encyclopedia of Engineering
Encyclopedia of Social Sciences
Encyclopedia of Medieval Royal Iconography
Academic Video Service
Feedback