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Topic Review
Crocins
In the extraction of geniposide for the development of natural food colorants from the dried fruits of Gardenia jasminoides Rubiaceae, the gardenia fruit waste (GFW) still remaining 0.86% (w/w) of crocins has always been discarded without any further treatments. Crocins were extracted firstly by 50% of ethanol in the highest yield of 8.61 mg/g (w/w) from GFW. After the HPD-100 column fractionation in the collecting of crocins, the conversion ratio of 75% of crocins to crocetins can be obtained from the commercial available enzyme- Celluclast® 1.5 L. The crocins hydrolyzed products, were then separated through the HPD-100 resin adsorption and finally purified with the centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) in single-step to obtain TC in a purity of 96.76 ± 0.17%. Conclusively, the effective enzyme transformation and purification co-operated with CPC technologies on crocins resulted in a high purity product of TC may be highly application in the commercial production.
  • 938
  • 14 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Bioactive Compounds in Cystoseira Extracts for Neurodegenerative Disorders
In the last decades, marine macroalgae have drawn attention mainly due to their bioactive components, which have a wide range of biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential. Phlorotannins, fatty acids, sterols and carbohydrates are some of the compounds present in brown algae and Cystoseira extracts responsible for such activities, representing enormous importance for the management of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer and Parkinson’s, with neuroinflammation and oxidative stress as hallmarks.
  • 938
  • 10 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Cognitive Dysfunction in Long COVID
Cognitive dysfunction in Long COVID refers to the persistence of neurocognitive symptoms such as memory deficits, attention impairment, executive dysfunction, and slowed information processing that continue for weeks or months after acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. These symptoms, commonly termed “brain fog,” are among the most disabling features of post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC) and occur even in individuals with mild initial disease. The underlying mechanisms involve chronic neuroinflammation, blood–brain barrier disruption, endothelial dysfunction, and neuroendocrine imbalance.
  • 938
  • 30 May 2025
Topic Review
Antioxidant/Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Garlic in Ischemic Stroke
Stroke represents one of the main causes of death and disability in the world; despite this, pharmacological therapies against stroke remain insufficient. Ischemic stroke is the leading etiology of stroke. Different molecular mechanisms, such as excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and inflammation, participate in cell death and tissue damage. At a preclinical level, different garlic compounds have been evaluated against these mechanisms. Additionally, there is evidence supporting the participation of garlic compounds in other mechanisms that contribute to brain tissue recovery, such as neuroplasticity. After ischemia, neuroplasticity is activated to recover cognitive and motor function. Some garlic-derived compounds and preparations have shown the ability to promote neuroplasticity under physiological conditions and, more importantly, in cerebral damage models. 
  • 936
  • 25 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Microglia and Mast Cells in Neuro-COVID
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). About 45% of COVID-19 patients experience several symptoms a few months after the initial infection and develop post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (PASC), referred to as “Long-COVID,” characterized by persistent physical and mental fatigue. However, the exact pathogenetic mechanisms affecting the brain are still not well-understood. There is increasing evidence of neurovascular inflammation in the brain.
  • 935
  • 31 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Peptide-Based Vaccines for Neurodegenerative Diseases
Neurodegenerative diseases are associated with a progressive loss of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) and are characterized by severe clinical deficits, especially cognitive, motor, and psychiatric ones. The most common neurodegenerative disease is Alzheimer’s disease (AD), while other well-known neurodegenerative diseases include Parkinson’s disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington’s disease (HD), etc. During the last two decades several research endeavors have been devoted to the development of peptide-based active immunotherapies/vaccines for fighting neurodegenerative diseases -aiming, eventually, at clinical application. The most significant among the aforementioned peptide-based candidate vaccines for neurogenerative diseases have been based on specific epitopes of certain biomolecular targets associated with neurodegeneration, especially beta-amyloid peptide (Aβ), tau protein (tau) and α-synuclein (α-syn), as will be presented below. 
  • 930
  • 14 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Roles of Non-Coding RNA in Alzheimer’s Disease Pathophysiology
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder that is accompanied by deficits in memory and cognitive functions. The disease is pathologically characterised by the accumulation and aggregation of an extracellular peptide referred to as amyloid-β (Aβ) in the form of amyloid plaques and the intracellular aggregation of a hyperphosphorelated protein tau in the form of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) that cause neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, and oxidative stress. The search for pathomechanisms leading to disease onset and progression has identified many key players that include genetic, epigenetic, behavioural, and environmental factors, which lend support to the fact that this is a multi-faceted disease where failure in various systems contributes to disease onset and progression. Although the vast majority of individuals present with the sporadic (non-genetic) form of the disease, dysfunctions in numerous protein-coding and non-coding genes have been implicated in mechanisms contributing to the disease.
  • 930
  • 25 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Cognitive Impairment in Parkinson’s Disease
Cognitive impairment is a common non-motor symptom in Parkinson’s Disease (PD) and an important source of patient disability and caregiver burden. The timing, profile and rate of cognitive decline varies widely among individuals with PD and can range from normal cognition to mild cognitive impairment (PD-MCI) and dementia (PDD). Beta-amyloid and tau brain accumulation, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are reported risk factors for cognitive impairment.
  • 929
  • 18 May 2021
Topic Review
DNA Damage-Induced Neurodegeneration
DNA repair ensures genomic stability to achieve healthy ageing, including cognitive maintenance. Mutations on genes encoding key DNA repair proteins can lead to diseases with accelerated ageing phenotypes. Some of these diseases are xeroderma pigmentosum group A (XPA, caused by mutation of XPA), Cockayne syndrome group A and group B (CSA, CSB, and are caused by mutations of CSA and CSB, respectively), ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T, caused by mutation of ATM), and Werner syndrome (WS, with most cases caused by mutations in WRN). Except for WS, a common trait of the aforementioned progerias is neurodegeneration. Evidence from studies using animal models and patient tissues suggests that the associated DNA repair deficiencies lead to depletion of cellular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), resulting in impaired mitophagy, accumulation of damaged mitochondria, metabolic derailment, energy deprivation, and finally leading to neuronal dysfunction and loss. Intriguingly, these features are also observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common type of dementia affecting more than 50 million individuals worldwide. Further studies on the mechanisms of the DNA repair deficient premature ageing diseases will help to unveil the mystery of ageing and may provide novel therapeutic strategies for AD.
  • 929
  • 13 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Intranasal Nanoemulsions for the Management of Brain Diseases
The intranasal pathway (olfactory and trigeminal nerves) lets the entry of various bioactive agents circumvent the hepatic first-pass effect, thus targetingneurological diseases. Several investigations and research have suggested the vital role ofdrug-loaded nanoemulsions in the mitigation of countless brain disorders proves to be a potential alternative to oral drug delivery systems. Further, mucoadhesive polymer enriched nanoemulsion prolongs residence time and therapeutic effect by weakening rapid clearance from the nasal mucosa. Obtained nanoemulsion possessed ~68 nm average particle size and positive zeta potential (~13 mV). The formulation exhibited 85.5% encapsulation efficiency and 72 h prolonged in vitro release of luteolin. Ex vivo performed Baker–Lonsdale kinetic model depicted approximately six times higher permeation across the nasal mucosa. Moreover, pharmacokinetic studies of the single dose administered intranasal nanoemulsion revealed a tentimes higher drug half-life and nearly a four times higher luteolin biodistribution in brain tissues that further suggested potential usage of developed chitosan-coated luteolin nanoemulsion for the management of brain neuroblastoma. 
  • 929
  • 25 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Neck Pain and Migraine
Cranial autonomic symptoms occur due to the activation of the trigeminal autonomic reflex, and the differential diagnosis with cluster headaches can be challenging. Neck pain can be part of the migraine prodromal symptoms or act as a trigger for a migraine attack. The prevalence of neck pain correlates with headache frequency and is associated with treatment resistance and greater disability. The convergence between upper cervical and trigeminal nociception via the trigeminal nucleus caudalis is the likely mechanism for neck pain in migraine. The recognition of cranial autonomic symptoms and neck pain as potential migraine features is important because they often contribute to the misdiagnosis of cervicogenic problems, tension-type headaches, cluster headaches, and rhinosinusitis in migraine patients, delaying appropriate attack and disease management.
  • 928
  • 11 May 2023
Topic Review
Hemorrhagic Transformation of Ischemic Strokes
Ischemic stroke (IS), resulting from insufficient blood supply to the brain, is among the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. A potentially severe complication of the disease itself or its treatment aiming to restore optimal blood flow is hemorrhagic transformation (HT) increasing morbidity and mortality.
  • 926
  • 07 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Link of Microbiome–Gut–Brain Axis and Brain Disorders
Neuropsychiatric diseases cover a wide spectrum of diseases affecting the brain, behaviour, and mood, affecting people of any age. Disruptions in microbial compositions have been implicated in diseases such as asthma, diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, and autism. The microbiota–gut–brain axis (MGBA) is a bidirectional communication pathway between the gut bacteria and the central nervous system (CNS). It is an extension of the gut–brain axis, in which the enteric nervous system (ENS), CNS, and the GI-tract work together to affect physiological aspects of the gut: motility, secretion, and acid and mucus production. The bacteria may influence the brain via the production of neurotransmitters and bacterial metabolites via stimulation of the vagal nerve, the immune system, or the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA-axis). On the other hand, the brain’s effects on the gut in terms of secretion, peristalsis, and sensory are mainly transferred via the vagus nerve.
  • 925
  • 05 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Neurodegeneration, Mitochondria, and Antibiotics
Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by the progressive loss of neurons, synapses, dendrites, and myelin in the central and/or peripheral nervous system. Actual therapeutic options for patients are scarce and merely palliative. Although they affect millions of patients worldwide, the molecular mechanisms underlying these conditions remain unclear. Mitochondrial dysfunction is generally found in neurodegenerative diseases and is believed to be involved in the pathomechanisms of these disorders. Although mitochondrial-targeted treatments are limited, new research findings have unraveled the therapeutic potential of several groups of antibiotics. These drugs possess pleiotropic effects beyond their anti-microbial activity, such as anti-inflammatory or mitochondrial enhancer function. The controversial use of antibiotics as potential therapies in neurodegenerative diseases will be discussed.
  • 925
  • 27 Mar 2023
Topic Review
NMDA Receptors and Anti-GluN Autoantibodies in Central Disorders
Autoantibodies against NMDA and AMPA receptors have been identified in the central nervous system of patients suffering from brain disorders characterized by neurological and psychiatric symptoms. It has been demonstrated that these autoantibodies can affect the functions and/or the expression of the targeted receptors, altering synaptic communication. The importance to clarify, in preclinical models, the molecular mechanisms involved in the autoantibody-mediated effects has emerged in order to understand their pathogenic role in central disorders, but also to propose new therapeutic approaches for preventing their deleterious central consequences.
  • 924
  • 20 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Aberrant Vascular System in Neurovascular-Related Diseases
Bidirectional communication between neurons and non-neuronal cells, including glia, plays a role in the pathogenesis of neural diseases. Recent findings have suggested that aberrant vascularization and vascular systems may also be involved in the development of neurodevelopmental diseases and neurodegenerative disorders.
  • 923
  • 19 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Patients with Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy
Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) appears in adolescence with myoclonic, absence, and generalized tonic clonic (GTC) seizures with paroxysmal activity of polyspike and slow wave (PSW), or spike and wave (SW) complexes in EEG.
  • 920
  • 28 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Biomarker of Neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson's disease is caused by an abnormal accumulation of alfa-synuclein in dopaminergic neurons of the substantial nigra, which subsequently causes motor symptoms. Neuroinflammation plays a vital role in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration in PD. This neuroinflammatory neurodegeneration involves the activation of microglia, upregulation of proinflammatory factors, and gut microbiota.
  • 920
  • 29 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Amyloid Precursor Protein Gene Mutations
Mutations in the gene encoding amyloid precursor protein (APP) cause autosomal dominant inherited Alzheimer’s disease (AD). 
  • 919
  • 23 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Molecular Progression of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of death and disability among children and adults in America. In addition, the acute morbidity caused by TBI is implicated in the development of devastating neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative sequela. TBI is associated with the development of a neurodegenerative condition termed ‘Punch Drunk syndrome’ or ‘dementia pugilistica’, and the more renamed ‘chronic traumatic encephalopathy’. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a slowly progressive neurodegenerative condition caused by a single or repetitive blow to the head. CTE was first described in boxers and was later found to be associated with other contact sports and military combat. It is defined by a constellation of symptoms consisting of mood disorders, cognitive impairment, and memory loss with or without sensorimotor changes. It is also a Tauopathy characterized by the deposition of hyperphosphorylated Tau protein in the form of neurofibrillary tangles, astrocytoma tangles, and abnormal neurites found in clusters around small vessels, typically at the sulcal depths. Oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and glutaminergic toxicity caused due to the insult play a role in developing this pathology. Additionally, the changes in the brain due to aging also plays an important role in the development of this condition. 
  • 919
  • 31 Jan 2023
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