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Topic Review
Smart Grid Management, Control, and Operation
Smart grid management, control and operation (SGMCO) are key tasks for maintaining their proper functioning as well as for their extension and expansion. The current challenges of power generation, distribution, transmission, and consumption, as well as growing energy demand, facilitate the integration of a large number of smart grids with renewable energy generators and physical information systems, while smart grids are moving toward distribution and decentralization in response to the evolving application of the Internet of Energy (IoE). SGMCO handles not only traditional management, control, and operations, but also the future challenges for smart grids: Collaboration between stakeholders, control of network imbalances (e.g. frequency and voltage regulation), data analysis and management, decentralized network management and operation, and security and privacy.
  • 5.4K
  • 10 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Wave Energy Converter
The overview of the types of wave energy converters (WECs) are classified through operational principle, absorbing wave direction, location, and power take-off.
  • 5.3K
  • 20 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Biomass
Hydrothermal liquefaction is a high-temperature high-pressure thermochemical conversion method adapted to convert high-water content biomass feedstocks to biofuels and many other valuable industrial chemicals. The hydrothermal process is broadly classified into carbonization, liquefaction, and gasification with hydrothermal liquefaction conducted in the intermediate temperature range of 250–374 °C and pressure of 4–25 MPa. Over the years, various solvents and co-solvents have been used as conversion mediums to promote easy decomposition of the lignocellulosic components in biomass. To obtain the final products, the product separation process typically involves multiple extraction and evaporation steps, which greatly depend on the type of extractive solvents and process parameters. In general, the main aim of the hydrothermal process is to produce a primary product, such as bio-oil, biochar, gases, or industrial chemicals, such as adhesives, benzene, toluene, and xylene.
  • 5.2K
  • 19 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Tumbling Mills
Tumbling mills have been widely implemented in many industrial sectors for the grinding of bulk materials. They have been used for decades in the production of fines and in the final stages of ore comminution, where optimal levels for the enrichment particles’ sizes are obtained. Even though these ubiquitous machines of relatively simple construction have been subjected to extensive studies, the industry still struggles with a very low energy efficiency of the comminution process. Moreover, obtaining an optimal size for the grinding product particles is crucial for the effectiveness of the following processes and waste production reduction. New, innovative processing methods and machines are being developed to tackle the problem; however, tumbling mills are still most commonly used in all ranges of the industry. Since heavy equipment retrofitting is the most costly approach, process optimization with dedicated models and control systems is the most preferable solution for energy consumption reduction. While the classic technological measurements in mineral processing are well adopted by the industry, nowadays research focuses on new methods of the mill’s internal dynamics analysis and control.
  • 4.9K
  • 19 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Electrochemical Energy Storage/Conversion System
Electrochemical energy storage and conversion systems such as electrochemical capacitors, batteries and fuel cells are considered as the most important technologies proposing environmentally friendly and sustainable solutions to address rapidly growing global energy demands and environmental concerns. Their commercial applications individually or in combination of two or more devices are based on their distinguishing properties e.g., energy/power densities, cyclability and efficiencies.
  • 4.7K
  • 03 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Distributed Generation Integration into Grid
According to [25], DGs could also be defined as a small source of power production for storage (usually within the range of less than a kW and tens of MW), which is not a portion of the huge, centralized power network and is located close to the load. Another school of thought defines DGs as power pockets usually located near consumers, which have a relatively small capacity of 30 MW or less, with the ability to economically support the distribution grid. This description involves DG technologies such as photovoltaic systems, concentrating solar power, micro turbines, reciprocating engines and fuel cells.
  • 4.5K
  • 16 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Bio-Oil
Bio-oil is a the liquid phase obtained from the pyrolysis of biomass. The composition and amount of bio-oil generated depend not only on the type of the biomass but also on the conditions under which pyrolysis is performed. Most fossil fuels can be replaced by bio-oil-derived products. Thus, bio-oil can be used directly or co-fed along with fossil fuels in boilers, transformed into fuel for car engines by hydrodeoxygenation or even used as a more suitable source for hydrogen production than biomass. On the other hand, due to its rich composition in compounds resulting from the pyrolysis of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, bio-oil co-acts as a source of various value-added chemicals such as aromatic compounds.
  • 4.3K
  • 12 May 2021
Topic Review
Biodiesel from Castor Oil
An attractive alternative to the use of fossil fuels is biodiesel, which can be obtained from a variety of feedstock through different transesterification systems such as ultrasound, microwave, biological, chemical, among others. The efficient and cost-effective biodiesel production depends on several parameters such as free fatty acid content in the feedstock, transesterification reaction efficiency, alcohol: oil ratio, catalysts type, and several parameters during the production process. However, biodiesel production from vegetable oils is under development, causing the final price of biodiesel to be higher than diesel derived from petroleum. An alternative to decrease the production costs will be the use of economical feedstocks and simple production processes. Castor oil is an excellent raw material in terms of price and quality, but especially this non-edible vegetable oil does not have any issues or compromise food security. Recently, the use of castor oil has attracted attention for producing and optimizing biodiesel production, due to the high content of ricinoleic fatty acid and the possibility to esterify with only methanol, which assures low production costs. Additionally, biodiesel from castor oil has different advantages over conventional diesel. Some of them are biodegradable, non-toxic, renewable, they can be used alone, low greenhouse gas emission, among others. This review discusses and analyzes different transesterification processes, technologies, as well as different technical aspects during biodiesel production using castor oil as a feedstock.
  • 4.2K
  • 28 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Modern Power Systems
Modern power systems include various technological innovations such as distributed renewable energy sources, energy storage devices, electric vehicle charging stations and advanced communication systems. Since many of these components are owned and managed by private entities, the planning and management of modern power systems is gradually changing, and is becoming a great challenge for utility companies and regulators. 
  • 3.9K
  • 16 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Chemical looping
Chemical looping technology in general, is the rising star in chemical technologies, which is capable of low CO2 emissions with applications in the production of heat, fuels, chemicals, and electricity. This entry discusses the technology in general, gives an overview of some pilot scale plants and the different chemical looping processes with focus on the production of heat and chemicals, highlights the importance of the development of oxygen carrier materials with suitable properties, 2.11.0.0 2.11.0.0
  • 3.9K
  • 02 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Electric Vehicles Charging/Discharging and Battery Degradation
The high penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) will burden the existing power delivery infrastructure if their charging and discharging are not adequately coordinated. The degradation of lithium-ion batteries occurs throughout their lives due to several chemicals and mechanical processes that reduce the cyclable lithium and other active materials. Battery degradation depends on many factors, such as the charging and discharging rates, depth of discharge (DOD), temperature, voltage, cycle number, and storage stage of charge.
  • 3.8K
  • 17 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Submarine Cables Radial Water Barrier
The submarine cables manufacturing industry is growing very rapidly. Solutions used so far, usually adapted from designs of land cables, do not fulfil the new, more demanding requirements. The phenomenon of water ingress into insulation and its absorption are basic factors determining the service life of submarine cables. The radial water barrier is the only effective component of cable design that may guarantee the required minimum 30-year longevity of submarine cables.
  • 3.8K
  • 01 Jun 2021
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Techno-Economic Analysis of State-of-the-Art Carbon Capture Technologies and Their Applications: Scient Metric Review
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are a serious hazard to human life and the ecosystem. This is the reason that many measures have been put in place by the International Energy Agency (IEA) to reduce the anthropogenic-derived CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. Today, the potential of renewable energy sources has led to an increased interest in investment in carbon capture and storage technologies worldwide. The aim of this paper is to investigate state-of-the-art carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies and their derivations for the identification of effective methods during the implementation of evidence-based energy policies. To this extent, this study reviews the current methods in three concepts: post-combustion; pre-combustion; and oxy-fuel combustion processes. The objective of this study is to explore the knowledge gap in recent carbon capture methods and provide a comparison between the most influential methods with high potential to aid in carbon capture. The study presents the importance of using all available technologies during the post-combustion process. To accomplish this, an ontological approach was adopted to analyze the feasibility of the CCS technologies available on the market. The study findings demonstrate that priority should be given to the applicability of certain methods for both industrial and domestic applications. On the contrary, the study also suggests that using the post-combustion method has the greatest potential, whereas other studies recommend the efficiency of the oxy-fuel process. Furthermore, the study findings also highlight the importance of using life cycle assessment (LCA) methods for the implementation of carbon capture technologies in buildings. This study contributes to the energy policy design related to carbon capture technologies in buildings.
  • 3.8K
  • 16 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Fluid Catalytic Cracking
The fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) process is an alternative olefin production technology, with lower CO2 emission and higher energy-saving.
  • 3.7K
  • 23 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Renewable Energy Technologies in Households
Energy sources used in households could be divided into the following two main groups: fossil fuels, which include natural gas, oil and coal, and renewable energy technologies, which include both conventional biomass and modern sources such as solar, wind and geothermal energy. Solar photovoltaic (PV) and solar thermal, micro wind, heat pumps and small-scale biomass heating technologies can be distinguished as the main renewable energy technologies in households.
  • 3.7K
  • 27 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Eco-Driving
Eco-driving is a multidimensional concept that includes driving behavior, route selection and all other choices or behaviors related to the vehicles’ fuel consumption (e.g., the use of quality fuel, the use of air conditioning, driving at peak hours, etc.).
  • 3.6K
  • 21 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Flocculation Harvesting Techniques for Microalgae
Microalgae have been considered as one of the most promising biomass feedstocks for various industrial applications such as biofuels, animal/aquaculture feeds, food supplements, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals. Several biotechnological challenges associated with algae cultivation, including the small size and negative surface charge of algal cells as well as the dilution of its cultures, need to be circumvented, which increases the cost and labor. Therefore, efficient biomass recovery or harvesting of diverse algal species represents a critical bottleneck for large-scale algal biorefinery process. Among different algae harvesting techniques (e.g., centrifugation, gravity sedimentation, screening, filtration, and air flotation), the flocculation-based processes have acquired much attention due to their promising efficiency and scalability. 
  • 3.6K
  • 13 Sep 2020
Topic Review
Methods for Electric Energy Accumulation
The daily non-uniform power demand is a serious problem in power industry. In addition, recent decades show a trend for the transition to renewable power sources, but their power output depends upon weather and daily conditions. These factors determine the urgency of energy accumulation technology research and development. The presence of a wide variety of energy storage mechanisms leads to the need for their classification and comparison as well as a consideration of possible options for their application in modern power units.
  • 3.6K
  • 23 Dec 2022
Topic Review
E-Fuels
Power-to-X (PtX) are fuel production pathways in which electricity is converted into various gaseous or liquid fuels, such as e-hydrogen, e-methanol, e-methane, dimethyl ether (E-DME), e-ammonia, or e-diesel. These fuels are also named electrofuels (e-fuel) or power-to-liquid (PtL) and are mentioned in the Annexes of the RED II amendments as alternative options for the decarbonisation of the transport sector. Some of these molecules still contain carbon atoms, thus producing CO2 when used for energy production. The carbon source for the synthesis of e-fuels has to be carefully analysed to define them really carbon neutral.
  • 3.4K
  • 27 Feb 2023
Topic Review Video
Direct Carbon Fuel Cells
Most fuel cells invariably use gaseous or liquid fuels. A fuel cell technology that has attracted attention only recently, the direct carbon fuel cell (DCFC) uses solid fuel (carbon) and converts the chemical energy in the carbon to electricity through its direct participation in the fuel cell reactions and electrochemical oxidation. The fuel use can be almost 100% compared with about 85% for most other fuel cells. The electrical efficiency is expected to be above 70% - almost twice those of current generation coal-fired plants leading to 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The amount of CO2 for storage/sequestration is also halved. Moreover, the exit gas is almost pure carbon dioxide stream, requiring no or minimal gas separation and processing for sequestration. Therefore, the energy and cost penalties to capture the CO2 will be significantly less than for other technologies. However, the technology is at an early stage of development requiring many complex challenges to be overcome, related to materials and corrosion, fuel delivery mechanism, and system development, before it can be commercialized. Section 19.4 of a recent book by the author gives an overview of this technology focusing on its main issues (Sequeira, 2019.). Two of the main DCFCs, the direct carbon molten carbonate fuel cell (DC-MCFC) and the direct carbon solid oxide fuel cell (DC-SOFC) are described in this topic review. 
  • 3.4K
  • 04 Aug 2021
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