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Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 Receptors
Different host-cell receptors are utilized by viral proteins to recognize host cells, such as integrins, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), sialic acid receptors, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4), and glucose regulated protein 78 (GRP78).
  • 963
  • 07 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Mutations of SARS-CoV-2 RBD
The genetic mutation of SARS-CoV-2 -especially RBD- might be linked to the viral properties that influence the viral transmission mode and severity of COVID-19 as well as RBD conformation. One of the dominant variants during COVID-19 pandemic has been the D614G mutation (not in the RBD region) of S glycoprotein; several reports have claimed that this mutation is able to increase the infectivity and stability of SARS-CoV-2. Up until now, most neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 have been targeting its RBD. However, there have been several mutations reported in SARS-CoV-2 RBD, such as N501Y, L452R, S477N, E484K, A502S, N439K, S494P, T478K, K417N, and K417T. These mutations pose a threat due to their role in host cell entry via the hACE2 receptor, which might strengthen SARS-CoV-2 infectivity, conformation and stability of RBD, viral load, or resistance against neutralizing antibodies.
  • 960
  • 01 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Multi-Organ Histopathological Changes
Infection with SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the global COVID-19 pandemic, causes a respiratory illness that can severely impact other organ systems and is possibly precipitated by cytokine storm, septic shock, thrombosis, and oxidative stress. SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals may be asymptomatic or may experience mild, moderate, or severe symptoms with or without pneumonia.
  • 960
  • 13 Sep 2021
Topic Review
AMPK in Viral Infections
Viral pathogens often exploit host cell regulatory and signaling pathways to ensure an optimal environment for growth and survival. Several studies have suggested that 5′-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an intracellular serine/threonine kinase, plays a significant role in the modulation of infection. 
  • 959
  • 24 May 2021
Topic Review
Ecology of Powassan Virus in the United States
The Powassan virus (POWV) is a rare tick-borne virus that can cause severe neurological damage and death, and the incidence of the associated disease (Powassan virus disease) is increasing in the eastern United States. The mechanisms by which POWV is maintained in nature and transmitted to humans are complex and only partly understood. 
  • 959
  • 30 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Long Terminal Repeat Promoters of Endogenous Retroviruses
Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) became a part of the eukaryotic genome through endogenization millions of years ago. Moreover, they have lost their innate capability of virulence or replication. Nevertheless, in eukaryotic cells, they actively engage in various activities that may be advantageous or disadvantageous to the cells. The mechanisms by which transcription is triggered and implicated in cellular processes are complex. Owing to the diversity in the expression of transcription factors (TFs) in cells and the TF-binding motifs of viruses, the comprehensibility of ERV initiation and its impact on cellular functions are unclear. Currently, several factors are known to be related to their initiation. TFs that bind to the viral long-terminal repeat (LTR) are critical initiators. 
  • 956
  • 14 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis B
Chronic carriers of hepatitis B virus (HBV) run the risk of developing cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma over time. Antiviral treatment offers the only means of arresting this process. Treatment relies on the use of an immune modulator such as pegylated interferon alpha (Peg-IFN-a) for a finite time or nucleosi(t)ide analogues which target the reverse transcriptase/DNA polymerase and can be used long-term. Drugs in development which target stages in the life cycle of the virus are reviewed, as are any results from their preclinical or clinical evaluation.
  • 955
  • 01 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Post-COVID Complications
Millions of people suffered badly due to COVID as well as post-COVID lung infections that were hard to comprehend. It is evident from numerous case studies that many COVID-19 patients who are released from nursing homes or hospitals are more prone to developing multi-organ dysfunction than the general population. Understanding the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and its impact on various organ systems is crucial for developing effective treatment strategies and managing long-term health consequences. 
  • 951
  • 28 Apr 2023
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in Algeria
To explore the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in Algeria, a dataset comprising ninety-five genomes originating from SARS-CoV-2 sampled from Algeria and other countries worldwide, from 24 December 2019, through 4 March 2021, was thoroughly examined. 
  • 949
  • 24 Nov 2021
Topic Review
A Mycobacteriophage-Based Vaccine Platform for SARS-CoV-2
Bacteriophage-based vaccines can generate a protective immune response by safely introducing foreign antigens displayed on, encapsidated within, or genetically encoded by phage. Here authors describe recombinants of mycobacteriophage Bxb1 (a phage infecting Mycobacterium smegmatis) that covalently display and express antigenic peptides of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein. Several of these vaccine candidates produced Spike-specific antibodies in immunized mice, but the responses were not neutralizing. This mycobacteriophage-based vaccine platform can likely be improved if delivery of larger antigens is achieved. 
  • 949
  • 06 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Study HuNoV in Gnotobiotic Pigs
Human noroviruses (HuNoVs) are the leading causative agents of epidemic and sporadic acute gastroenteritis that affect people of all ages worldwide. They are responsible for over 20% of all the AGE cases annually. Among susceptible individuals, it has been shown that very low inoculum doses are sufficient to generate a full course of infection with high titers of virus shed in feces. Very few dose–response studies have been carried out to determine the median infectious dose of HuNoVs. Here, we evaluated the median infectious dose (ID50) and diarrhea dose (DD50) of the GII.4/2003 variant of HuNoV (Cin-2) in the gnotobiotic pig model of HuNoV infection and disease. Using different mathematical approaches (classical, and contemporary methods), we estimated the ID50 and DD50 to be between 2400–3400 RNA copies, and 21,000–38,000 RNA copies, respectively. Contemporary dose–response models offer greater flexibility and accuracy in estimating ID50. In contrast to classical methods of endpoint estimation, dose–response modelling allows seamless analyses of data that may include inconsistent dilution factors between doses or numbers of subjects per dose group, or small numbers of subjects. Although this investigation is consistent with state-of-the-art ID50 determinations and offers an advancement in clinical data analysis, it is important to underscore that such analyses remain confounded by pathogen aggregation. Regardless, challenging virus strain ID50 determination is crucial for identifying the true infectiousness of HuNoVs and for the accurate evaluation of protective efficacies in pre-clinical studies of therapeutics, vaccines and other prophylactics using this reliable animal model.
  • 947
  • 10 Sep 2020
Topic Review
Nanomedicine as a Potential Tool against Monkeypox
Human monkeypox is a rare viral zoonosis that was first identified in 1970; since then, this infectious disease has been marked as endemic in central and western Africa. Questions about the necessity of developing a vaccine persist. Developing a nanomedicine-based preventative strategy might be prudent, particularly with the rapid growth of the use of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in medical research.
  • 946
  • 10 Mar 2023
Topic Review
MicroRNAs for Predicting Cancer Patients’ Susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease that is caused by a highly contagious and severe acute respiratory syndrome—coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This infection started to spread across the world in 2019 and rapidly turned into a global pandemic, causing an urgent necessity for treatment strategies development. The mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 can trigger an immune response, providing genetic information that allows the production of spike glycoproteins. MiRNAs play a crucial role in diverse key cellular processes, including antiviral defense. Several miRNAs are described as key factors in SARS-CoV-2 human infection through the regulation of ACE2 levels and by the inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 replication and spike expression. Consequently, these molecules have been considered as highly promising biomarkers. In numerous human malignancies, it has been recognized that miRNAs expression is dysregulated. Since miRNAs can target SARS-CoV-2-associated mRNAs, in cancer patients, the deregulation of these molecules can impair the immune response to the vaccines. 
  • 945
  • 26 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Chicks Infected by Salmonella enteritidis
Chicks showed heterogeneous responses to S. enteritidis infection. Enhanced intestinal barrier function and cecal microbiota structure, especially a higher abundance of Desulfovibrio_piger, may help chicks resist S. enteritidis invasion. 
  • 939
  • 25 Aug 2021
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 and the Risk Assessment
In December 2019, several cases of atypical pneumonia were detected in Wuhan city, Hubei province, inland China. The initial outbreak was of considerable size first in China subsequently spread to the rest of the world. Immediately after the epidemic (which according to the World Health Organization had risen to pandemic status), the problem of whether or not to update the occupational risk assessment arose, also considering how the biological risk from SARS CoV-2 should be understood: specific or generic. To this end, we conducted a literature review to identify national health legislation and policies, examining how Italy has addressed the COVID-19 emergency in occupational health planning, in order to develop considerations on the need to update the Risk Assessment Document following the pandemic status. The data that emerged from the review of current legislation allowed us to conclude that the risk from SARS-CoV-2 is in most work activities to be understood as a generic or aggravated generic risk, requiring the employer to apply and control the preventive measures suggested by health authorities to contain the spread of the virus.
  • 938
  • 14 May 2021
Topic Review
Artificial Intelligence in the COVID-2019
COVID-2019 pandemic lead to a raised interest on the development of new treatments through Artificial Intelligence (AI). AI is a suitable tool to quickly analyze large amounts of data or to estimate drug repurposing against COVID-2019.
  • 938
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Mosquito-Borne Viruses and Non-Human Vertebrates
Mosquito-borne viruses are well recognized as a global public health burden amongst humans, but the effects on non-human vertebrates is rarely reported. 
  • 937
  • 18 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Families of Viruses that Affect Passeriformes
Interest in emerging viruses is growing because some can cause serious or lethal disease in humans and animals. The number of cloacal virome studies is also growing, however, these usually focus on poultry and other domestic birds, These studies reveal a wide variety of viruses, although the pathogenic significance of most newly discovered viruses is uncertain. Analysis of viruses detected in wild birds is complex and often biased towards waterfowl because of the obvious interest in avian influenza or other zoonotic viruses. Less is known about the viruses present in the order Passeriformes, which comprises approximately 60% of extant bird species. This review aims to compile the most significant contributions, from traditional and metagenomic studies, on the viruses that affect passerines. It highlights most passerine species have never been sampled. Some viruses, especially Flaviviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Poxviridae and Togaviridae, and arguably others, are considered emerging because of increased incidence or avian mortality/morbidity, spread to new geographical areas or hosts and their zoonotic risk. However, many of these viruses have only recently been described in passerines using metagenomics and their role in the ecosystem is unknown.
  • 937
  • 27 Oct 2023
Topic Review
The Vaccine against Human Cytomegalovirus
Human cytomegalovirus (hCMV) is one of the most common causes of congenital infection in the post-rubella era, representing a major public health concern. Although most cases are asymptomatic in the neonatal period, congenital CMV (cCMV) disease can result in permanent impairment of cognitive development and represents the leading cause of non-genetic sensorineural hearing loss. Moreover, even if hCMV mostly causes asymptomatic or pauci-symptomatic infections in immunocompetent hosts, it may lead to severe and life-threatening disease in immunocompromised patients. Since immunity reduces the severity of disease, in the last years, the development of an effective and safe hCMV vaccine has been of great interest to pharmacologic researchers. Both hCMV live vaccines—e.g., live-attenuated, chimeric, viral-based—and non-living ones—subunit, RNA-based, virus-like particles, plasmid-based DNA—have been investigated. Encouraging data are emerging from clinical trials, but a hCMV vaccine has not been licensed yet. Major difficulties in the development of a satisfactory vaccine include hCMV’s capacity to evade the immune response, unclear immune correlates for protection, low number of available animal models, and insufficient general awareness. Moreover, there is a need to determine which may be the best target populations for vaccine administration. The aim of the present paper is to examine the status of hCMV vaccines undergoing clinical trials and understand barriers limiting their development.
  • 936
  • 07 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Viral Interactions with Adaptor-Protein Complexes
Numerous viruses hijack cellular protein trafficking pathways to mediate cell entry or to rearrange membrane structures thereby promoting viral replication and antagonizing the immune response. Adaptor protein complexes (AP), which mediate protein sorting in endocytic and secretory transport pathways, are one of the conserved viral targets. We present here different mechanisms of viral interference with AP complexes and the functional consequences that allow for efficient viral propagation and evasion of host immune defense. The best described examples are interactions of human immunodeficiency virus and human herpesviruses with AP complexes. Several other viruses, like Ebola, Nipah, and SARS-CoV-2, are pointed out as high priority disease-causative agents supporting the need for deeper understanding of virus-AP interplay which can be exploited in the design of novel antiviral therapies
  • 936
  • 13 Jun 2021
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