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List of Mandaean Scriptures
This article contains a list of Mandaean scriptures (Mandaean religious texts written in Classical Mandaic). Well-known texts include the Ginza Rabba (also known as the Sidra Rabbā) and the Qolastā. Texts for Mandaean priests include The 1012 Questions, among others. Some, like the Ginza Rabba, are codices (bound books), while others, such as the various diwan (illustrated scrolls) are scrolls. This list is by no means exhaustive. Institutional libraries and private collections contain various Mandaean religious texts that are little known or even unknown to the international scholarly community.
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  • 21 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Haridwar
Haridwar (/hʌrɪˈdwɑːr/; local pronunciation (help·info)) is a city and municipal corporation in the Haridwar district of Uttarakhand, India. With a population of 228,832 in 2011, it is the second-largest city in the state and the largest in the district. The city is situated on the right bank of the Ganges river, at the foothills of the Shivalik ranges. Haridwar is regarded as a holy place for Hindus, hosting important religious events and serving as a gateway to several prominent places of worship. Most significant of the events is the Kumbha Mela, which is celebrated every 12 years in Haridwar. During the Haridwar Kumbh Mela, millions of pilgrims, devotees, and tourists congregate in Haridwar to perform ritualistic bathing on the banks of the Ganges to wash away their sins to attain moksha. According to Puranic legend, Haridwar, along with Ujjain, Nashik, and Prayag, is one of four sites where drops of amrita, the elixir of immortality, accidentally spilled over from a kumbha (pitcher) while being carried by the celestial bird Garuda during the Samudra Manthana, or the churning of the ocean of milk. Brahma Kund, the spot where the amrita fell, is believed to be located at Har ki Pauri (literally, "footsteps of the Lord") and is considered to be the most sacred ghat of Haridwar. It is also the primary centre of the Kanwar pilgrimage, in which millions of participants gather sacred water from the Ganges and carry it across hundreds of miles to dispense as offerings in Shiva shrines. Today, the city is developing beyond its religious importance with the fast-developing industrial estate of the State Industrial Development Corporation of Uttarakhand (SIDCUL), and the close by township of Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), as well as its affiliated ancillaries. Haridwar presents a kaleidoscope of Indian culture and development. In sacred writings, it has been differently specified as Kapilsthan, Gangadwar and Mayapuri. It is additionally a passage for the Chota Char Dham (the four principal pilgrim destinations in Uttarakhand). Subsequently, Shaivites (devotees of Shiva) and Vaishavites (devotees of Vishnu) call the city Hardwar and Haridwar, respectively, Har meaning Shiva and Hari, Vishnu.
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  • 10 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Patikulamanasikara
Paṭikkūlamanasikāra (variant: paṭikūlamanasikāra) is a Pāli term that is generally translated as "reflections on repulsiveness". It refers to a traditional Buddhist meditation whereby thirty-one parts of the body are contemplated in a variety of ways. In addition to developing sati (mindfulness) and samādhi (concentration), this form of meditation is considered conducive to overcoming desire and lust. Along with cemetery contemplations, this type of meditation is one of the two meditations on "the foul"/unattractiveness (Pāli: asubha).
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  • 26 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Sexual Differences in Jainism
According to the Tattvārtha-sūtra, all beings - save for infernal beings, one-sensed beings, or gods - possess one of three genders: female, male, or hermaphroditic. These genders are produced by a specific "body-making karma" that is attached to the soul of an individual being. In the process of achieving spiritual liberation, this karma is shed in order to free the soul from the cycle of rebirths known as saṃsāra. As such, all beings that have the potential to achieve spiritual liberation can do so, regardless of gender. This point, however, has been hotly debated amongst Śvetāmbara and Digambara Jains, so much so that a major sectarian difference between the two rests on the issues of female mendicants and female salvation. Jain literary traditions also reveal an ambiguous perception of non-males. Women are sometimes portrayed as virtuous mothers and learned teachers, while at other times, they, and other-gendered beings, are seen as temptresses and evildoers. Thus, despite the fact that Jainism offers an "almost unique insistence upon women [and others] as legitimate soteriological agents," there is a preponderance of characterizations, sources, and references that negatively influence the perception of women and other-gendered beings within the tradition.
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  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Res Publica Christiana
In medieval and early modern Western political thought, the respublica or res publica Christiana refers to the international community of Christian peoples and states. As a Latin phrase, res publica Christiana combines Christianity with the originally Roman idea of the res publica ("republic" or "commonwealth") to describe this community and its well-being. A single English word with somewhat comparable meaning is Christendom; it is also translated as "the Christian Commonwealth".
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  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Apostolic Prefect
An apostolic prefect or prefect apostolic is a priest who heads what is known as an apostolic prefecture, a 'pre-diocesan' missionary jurisdiction where the Catholic Church is not yet sufficiently developed to have it made a diocese. Although it usually has an (embryonal) see, sometimes even a cathedral it is often not called after such city but rather after a natural and/or administrative (in many cases colonial) geographical area: region(s), sometimes a country or even larger. If a prefecture grows and flourishes, it may be elevated to an apostolic vicariate, headed by a titular bishop, in the hope that with time the region will generate enough Catholics and stability for its Catholic institutions, to warrant being established as a diocese. Both these stages remain missionary, hence exempt, i.e. directly subject to the Holy See (notably the Roman Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples), normally not part of an ecclesiastical province. The full sequence of development is: independent mission, apostolic prefecture, apostolic vicariate, apostolic diocese; however steps may be skipped at the papal discretion, so the next steps may be bishopric or even archbishopric. The apostolic prefecture and the apostolic vicariate are to be distinguished from the territorial abbacy (formerly called an "abbey nullius").
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  • 10 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Raj`a
Raj`a (Arabic: الرجعة) (alternatively rjaa, raja'a, raj'at) in Islamic terminology, refers to the Second Coming, or the return to life of a given past historical figure after that person's physical death. While primarily used in Shia Muslim terminology, variations on the doctrine exist in Sunni Islam and the Bahá'í Faith, and raj`a is used to describe certain Christian doctrines in Arabic.
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  • 06 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Torii
A torii (鳥居, literally bird abode, Japanese pronunciation: [to.ɾi.i]) is a traditional Japan ese gate most commonly found at the entrance of or within a Shinto shrine, where it symbolically marks the transition from the mundane to sacred. The presence of a torii at the entrance is usually the simplest way to identify Shinto shrines, and a small torii icon represents them on Japanese road maps.[note 1] The first appearance of Torii gates in Japan can be reliably pinpointed to at least the mid-Heian period because they are mentioned in a text written in 922. The oldest existing stone torii was built in the 12th century and belongs to a Hachiman Shrine in Yamagata prefecture. The oldest wooden torii is a ryōbu torii (see description below) at Kubō Hachiman Shrine in Yamanashi prefecture built in 1535. Torii gates were traditionally made from wood or stone, but today they can be also made of reinforced concrete, copper, stainless steel or other materials. They are usually either unpainted or painted vermilion with a black upper lintel. Inari shrines typically have many torii because those who have been successful in business often donate in gratitude a torii to Inari, kami of fertility and industry. Fushimi Inari-taisha in Kyoto has thousands of such torii, each bearing the donor's name.
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  • 06 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Anchorite
An anchorite or anchoret (female: anchoress; adj. anchoritic; from Ancient Greek:, anachōrētḗs, "one who has retired from the world", from the verb ἀναχωρέω, anachōréō, signifying "to withdraw", "to retire") is someone who, for religious reasons, withdraws from secular society so as to be able to lead an intensely prayer-oriented, ascetic, or Eucharist-focused life. Whilst anchorites are frequently considered to be a type of religious hermit, unlike hermits they were required to take a vow of stability of place, opting instead for permanent enclosure in cells often attached to churches. Also unlike hermits, anchorites were subject to a religious rite of consecration that closely resembled the funeral rite, following which they would be considered dead to the world, a type of living saint. Anchorites had a certain autonomy, as they did not answer to any ecclesiastical authority other than the bishop. The anchoritic life is one of the earliest forms of Christian monasticism. In the Catholic Church today, it is one of the "Other Forms of Consecrated Life" and governed by the same norms as the consecrated eremitic life. From the 12th to the 16th centuries, female anchorites consistently outnumbered their male equivalents, sometimes by as many as four to one (in the 13th century), dropping eventually to two to one (in the 15th century). The sex of a high number of anchorites, however, is not recorded for these periods.
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  • 13 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Sources for the Historicity of Jesus
Christian sources, such as the New Testament books in the Christian Bible, include detailed stories about Jesus but scholars differ on the historicity of specific episodes described in the Biblical accounts of Jesus. The only two events subject to "almost universal assent" are that Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist and was crucified by the order of the Roman Prefect Pontius Pilate. Non-Christian sources that are used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include Jewish sources such as Josephus, and Roman sources such as Tacitus. These sources are compared to Christian sources such as the Pauline Epistles and the Synoptic Gospels. These sources are usually independent of each other (e.g. Jewish sources do not draw upon Roman sources), and similarities and differences between them are used in the authentication process. In a review of the state of research, the Jewish scholar Amy-Jill Levine stated that "no single picture of Jesus has convinced all, or even most scholars" and that all portraits of Jesus are subject to criticism by some group of scholars.
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  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Sacca-kiriya
Sacca-kiriyā (Pāli; Sanskrit: satya-kriya, but more often: satyādhiṣṭhāna), is a solemn declaration of truth, expressed in ritual speech. Most often found in Buddhism, it can be an utterance with regard to one's own virtue, or with regard to a certain fact, followed by a command or resolution. Such a statement is believed to effect a wonder-working power that can benefit oneself and others, depending on the truthfulness of the person making the statement. The sacca-kiriyā is a motif found in the stories of the Buddhist Pali Canon and its commentaries, as well as in post-canonical works such as the Milindapañhā and the Avadānas. In these stories it is found usually as a blessing, but sometimes as a curse. The motif can also be found in Hindu and Jain texts. The sacca-kiriyā presumes a moral force of truth that is operating in the world, and is stronger than gods or humans. Although sacca-kiriyā often refer to characteristics of the Buddha, the Buddhist teaching, and the monastic community, it can also refer to facts with regard to natural phenomena, such as the sun or the moon. Some scholars believe that the effectiveness of a sacca-kiriyā as portrayed in stories depends on virtue and good character, whereas other scholars understand the sacca-kiriyā to be merely about speaking according to facts. Scholars theorize that the sacca-kiriyā is an ancient belief that precedes Buddhism, but was used in Buddhism as a teaching device to explain Buddhist ethics and other teachings. The principles underlying the sacca-kiriyā have also been connected with Mahatma Gandhi's ideal of non-violent resistance, and many other aspects of Asian culture and religious life.
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  • 16 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Parinama-vada (Hindu Thought)
Pariṇāma-vāda (Sanskrit: परिणामवाद), or theTransformation theory is that which pre-supposes the cause to be continually transforming itself into its effects, and it has three variations – the Satkarya-vada of the Samkhyas, the Prakrti Parinama-vada of the Saiva Siddhanta and the Brahma-Parinama-vada of the Vishishtadvaita Vedanta School of Thought.
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  • 08 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Govardhana Sila
A Govardhana Shila is rock from the Govardhan Hill in Braj. Govardhan Hill holds a unique position in Hindu scriptures related to Krishna, the land called Vrij where He was born. Known as Govardhan or Giriraj and being the sacred center of Braj, it is identified as a natural form of Krishna. Indian art overwhelmingly prefers the iconic image, but some aniconism does occur in folk worship, early Buddhism, Shiva's Banalinga, and Vishnu's Saligrama Sila (murthi)). They have solar significance, and their use in worship predates the Hindu period in India . The stone is usually brown in color. Govardhan, a very famous place of Hindu pilgrimage, is located 26 km west of Mathura (154 km from New Delhi) on the state highway to Deeg. Govardhan is located on a narrow sandstone hill known as Giriraj which is about 8 km in length. When Chaitanya Mahaprabhu did parikrama (circumambulation) of Govardhana Hill while visiting Vrindavana in 1515 AD, he did not walk on the hill because he considered Govardhana as non-different from Lord Krishna. Therefore, traditionally Vaishnavas don’t step on Govardhan hill.
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  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Divine Mercy Image
The Image of the Divine Mercy is a depiction of Jesus Christ that is based on the devotion initiated by Saint Faustina Kowalska. "I promise that the soul that will venerate this image will not perish," Jesus told Faustina, according to her diary, which has been studied and authenticated by the Catholic Church over several decades. "I also promise victory over enemies already here on earth, especially at the hour of death. I myself will defend it as My own glory." (Diary 48) Jesus is shown, in most versions, as raising his right hand in blessing and pointing with his left hand on the Sacred Heart from which flow forth two rays: one red and one pale. The depiction contains the message "Jesus I trust in you" (Polish: Jezu ufam Tobie). The rays that stream out have symbolic meanings: red for the blood of Jesus (which is the Life of Souls) and pale for the water (which justifies souls) (Diary 299). The whole image is a symbol of charity, forgiveness and love of God, referred to as the "Fountain of Mercy". According to Faustina's diary, the image is based on her 1931 vision of Jesus. Faustina directed the painting of the first image in Vilnius by the artist Eugeniusz Kazimirowski. Since then, numerous versions of the image have been painted by other artists, including a popular rendition by Adolf Hyła in Kraków. They are widely venerated worldwide and are used in the celebration of Divine Mercy Sunday, observed in Roman Catholic as well as some Anglican churches.
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  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Rada (Fiqh)
Raḍāʿ or riḍāʿa (Arabic: رضاع, رضاعة  pronounced [rɪˈdˤɑːʕ(æ)], "breastfeeding") is a technical term in Sunni Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) meaning "the suckling which produces the legal impediment to marriage of foster-kinship", and refers to the fact that under Sunni jurispurdence, a wet nurse is considered related to the infant she nurses. The term derives from the infinitive noun of the Arabic word radiʿa or radaʿa ("he sucked the breast of his mother"). Often it is translated as "fosterage" or "milk kinship". The concept of radāʿ derives from Islamic and pre-Islamic notions concerning the state of blood relations whereby a wet nurse (and her close relations) and the baby she is nursing (and his or her close family) are deemed related to one another (a status known as mahram) through the act of breastfeeding. One important consequence is that the wet nurse and her family are forbidden to marry the baby and members of the baby's family (e.g. the nursling's biological brother with the milk-mother's biological daughter). Conversely, the milk-relationship allows usually forbidden familiarities between the two groups, (e.g. if the nursling is male, when he becomes an adult he may view the milk-mother and her close female relatives unveiled or in private, exactly as if he were a relation). Thus, according to some Sahih hadith, nursing an adult male could be used as a workaround to Islamic gender segregation, so that a male may be allowed in proximity to the nursing woman, her sisters and her daughters.
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  • 14 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Taoist Music
Taoist music is the ceremonial music of Taoism. The importance of music in Taoist ceremony is demonstrated by revealing how central beliefs are reflected through elements of music such as instrumentation and rhythm. Expression of spiritual beliefs through music enables followers of Taoism to enhance their path to enlightenment.
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  • 25 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Svabhava
Svabhava (Sanskrit: svabhāva; Pali: sabhāva; Chinese: 自性; pinyin: zìxìng; Tibetan: རང་བཞིན, Wylie: rang-bzhin) literally means "own-being" or "own-becoming". It is the intrinsic nature, essential nature or essence of beings. The corresponding concept in Western philosophy is substance theory. The concept and term svabhāva are frequently encountered in Hindu and Buddhist traditions such as Advaita Vedanta (e.g. in the Avadhūta Gītā), Mahayana Buddhism (e.g. in the Ratnagotravibhāga), Vaishnavism (e.g., the writings of Ramanuja) and Dzogchen (e.g. in the seventeen tantras). In the nondual Advaita Vedānta yoga text, Avadhūta Gītā, Brahman (in the Upanishadic denotation) is the svabhāva. In the Mahāyāna Buddhadharma tradition(s) it is one of a suite of terms employed to denote the Buddha-nature, such as "gotra".
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  • 20 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Japanese Zen
Zen is the Japanese variant of Chan Buddhism, a Mahayana school that strongly emphasizes dhyana concentration-meditation. This practice, according to Zen proponents, gives insight into one's true nature, or the emptiness of inherent existence, which opens the way to a liberated way of living.
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  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Judeo-nazarenism
Judeo-nazarenism is a new term in the study of early Christianity. The term is distinguished from the term "Nazarenes" used in Jewish writings, to avoid the recognition of Jesus as Messiah, which is inherent in the term "Christians". It's also necessary to distinguish the various Christian sects who were using the name "Nazarenes" over the centuries.
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  • 30 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Christian State
A Christian state is a country that recognizes a form of Christianity as its official religion and often has a state church (also called an established church), which is a Christian denomination that supports the government and is supported by the government. Historically, the nations of Armenia, Aksum, Georgia, as well as the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire declared themselves as Christian states. In the Middle Ages, the idea to establish a Pan-Christian state by uniting the countries within Christendom, became popular, along with the goal to recover territory in which Christianity historically flourished, such as the Middle East and North Africa. Today, several nations officially identify themselves as Christian states or have state churches, including Argentina , Costa Rica, Denmark (incl. Greenland), Dominican Republic, El Salvador, England , Faroe Islands, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, Norway , Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vatican City, and Zambia. A Christian state stands in contrast to a secular state, an atheist state, or another religious state, such as a Jewish state, or an Islamic state.
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  • 29 Sep 2022
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