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Topic Review
Botulinum Toxin in Chronic Migraine Treatment
Primary headaches are a large group of diseases where the headache is not a symptom of another known disease. Tension-type headache affects approximately 80% of the general population, and the prevalence of migraine is estimated at 10–12%. Clinical data and experience to date have demonstrated that botulinum toxin may be an effective prophylactic treatment for chronic headache types. It has been used in neurology for the treatment of dystonia and blepharospasm. Now it has been approved to treat chronic migraine and has been shown to confer significant benefit in refractory cases.  Botulinum toxin is effective in pain control through its interaction with the SNARE complex, which inhibits the release of neurotransmitters, such as glutamate, substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide. OnabotulinumtoxinA is effective not only in headache frequency and pain intensity but in other parameters, including quality of life. 
  • 555
  • 21 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Motor Neuron Disease
Motor neuron disease (MND) is a group of fatal neurodegenerative diseases with no effective treatment, which have the shared characteristic of the progressive loss of upper and/or lower motor neurons. Disease onset is insidious, with patients gradually losing control of their voluntary muscles, resulting in relatively late diagnosis. Due to the nature of the disease and the lack of effective treatment, MND patients usually die within 2 to 3 years following diagnosis, primarily because of the loss of respiratory function. The only drug approved in Australia, Riluzole, only prolongs the median life expectancy by 2 to 3 months. New and effective treatments are therefore urgently needed.
  • 554
  • 20 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Postoperative Delirium in Neurosurgical Patients
Postoperative delirium (POD) is a complication characterized by disturbances in attention, awareness, and cognitive function that occur shortly after surgery or emergence from anesthesia. Since it occurs prevalently in neurosurgical patients and poses great threats to the well-being of patients, much emphasis is placed on POD in neurosurgical units.
  • 551
  • 01 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Speech- and Language-Based Classification of Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is one of the most devastating brain diseases in the world, especially in the more advanced age groups. It is a progressive neurological disease that results in irreversible loss of neurons, particularly in the cortex and hippocampus, which leads to characteristic memory loss and behavioral changes in humans. Communicative difficulties (speech and language) constitute one of the groups of symptoms that most accompany dementia and, therefore, should be recognized as a central study instrument. This recognition aims to provide earlier diagnosis, resulting in greater effectiveness in delaying the disease evolution. Speech analysis, in general, represents an important source of information encompassing the phonetic, phonological, lexical-semantic, morphosyntactic, and pragmatic levels of language organization. The first signs of cognitive decline are quite present in the discourse of neurodegenerative patients so that diagnosis via speech analysis of these patients is a viable and effective method, which may even lead to an earlier and more accurate diagnosis.
  • 547
  • 17 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Concussion Guidelines in Amateur Sports
It is widely recognised in sports medicine that sports-related concussion (SRC) is one of the most difficult injuries to detect, with more needed to be done to recognise, remove and treat athletes with the condition
  • 547
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Botulinum Toxin Type A for Restless Legs Syndrome
Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is a sleep-related movement disorder characterized by an unpleasant urge to move the lower limbs. The prevalence of RLS varies by region, ethnicity, sex, and age, ranging from 5–15% . Its pathophysiology remains unclear. Criteria for the diagnosis of RLS include the International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group (IRLSSG) and International Classification of Sleep Disorders, Third Edition (ICSD-3). The ICSD-3 criteria require distress and associated sleep disturbance, which is different from the IRLSSG consensus [2]. As for the measurement of disease severity for RLS, the IRLSSG rating scale (IRLS) was proposed. It assesses a range of RLS related symptoms and their impact on patients’ mood and daily life, and it has been proved reliable, valid, and responsive in clinical trials.
  • 545
  • 18 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Neuroimmunology in Depressive Disorders
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with increased suicidal risk and reduced productivity at work. Neuroimmunology, the study of the immune system and nervous system, provides further insight into the pathogenesis and outcome of MDD. Cytokines are the main modulators of neuroimmunology, and their levels are somewhat entangled in depressive disorders as they affect depressive symptoms and are affected by antidepressant treatment. The use of cytokine-derived medication as a treatment option for MDD is currently a topic of interest.
  • 544
  • 11 May 2021
Topic Review
Immunological Dysfunction in Tourette Syndrome
Chronic tic disorder and Tourette syndrome are common childhood-onset neurological diseases. An autoimmune dysfunction has been proposed in the pathogenetic mechanism of Tourette syndrome and related neuropsychiatric disorders such as obsessive–compulsive disorder, autism, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
  • 542
  • 16 May 2021
Topic Review
Pharmacological and Non-Pharmacological Treatments for Depression in PD
Depression represents one of the most common non-motor disorders in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and it has been related to worse life quality, higher levels of disability, and cognitive impairment, thereby majorly affecting not only the patients but also their caregivers. Available pharmacological therapeutic options for depression in PD mainly include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, and tricyclic antidepressants; meanwhile, agents acting on dopaminergic pathways used for motor symptoms, such as levodopa, dopaminergic agonists, and monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors, may also provide beneficial antidepressant effects. There is a growing interest in non-pharmacological interventions, including cognitive behavioral therapy; physical exercise, including dance and mind–body exercises, such as yoga, tai chi, and qigong; acupuncture; therapeutic massage; music therapy; active therapy; repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS); and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for refractory cases.
  • 535
  • 01 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Major Depression and PTSD Biomarkers
Even though major depressive disorder (MDD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are among the most prevalent and incapacitating mental illnesses in the world, their diagnosis still relies solely on the characterization of subjective symptoms (many of which are shared by multiple disorders) self-reported by patients and biomarkers to facilitate diagnosis and treatment are still an unmet necessity.
  • 535
  • 09 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Music Intervention on Dementia
Dementia is an umbrella term for several progressive diseases such as Alzheimer’s that affect memory, language, problem-solving, and the individual’s thinking ability, which interfere with their daily living activities. People living with dementia (PWD) usually face social and communication interaction problems, which negatively impacts on their lives and the people around them.
  • 533
  • 29 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Dopamine Receptor
Dopaminergic receptors (DR)  including D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5, which are members of the G-protein coupled receptor family.
  • 532
  • 29 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Research on Neuroelectric Disruption after Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) remains a challenging but very important condition, because DCI is preventable and treatable for improving functional outcomes after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). The pathologies underlying DCI are multifactorial. Classical approaches to DCI focus exclusively on preventing and treating the reduction of blood flow supply. However, recently, glutamate-mediated neuroelectric disruptions, such as excitotoxicity, cortical spreading depolarization and seizures, and epileptiform discharges, have been reported to occur in high frequencies in association with DCI development after SAH. Each of the neuroelectric disruptions can trigger the other, which augments metabolic demand. If increased metabolic demand exceeds the impaired blood supply, the mismatch leads to relative ischemia, resulting in DCI. The neuroelectric disruption also induces inverted vasoconstrictive neurovascular coupling in compromised brain tissues after SAH, causing DCI. Although glutamates and the receptors may play central roles in the development of excitotoxicity, cortical spreading ischemia and epileptic activity-related events, more studies are needed to clarify the pathophysiology and to develop novel therapeutic strategies for preventing or treating neuroelectric disruption-related DCI after SAH.
  • 528
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Exogenous Microorganisms and Their Derivatives for Glioma Treatment
Glioma is a life-threatening malignancy, and traditional radiotherapy and chemotherapy are not very effective. A growing number of studies have shown that microorganisms and their derivatives can be used as cancer therapies.
  • 528
  • 08 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is defined as “the sudden death of an infant under 1 year of age which remains unexplained after thorough investigation including a complete autopsy, death scene investigation, and detailed clinical and pathological review”. 
  • 526
  • 14 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Pharmacological Potential of 3-Benzazepines in NMDAR-Linked Pathophysiological Processes
The number of N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) linked neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and dementia is constantly increasing. This is partly due to demographic change and presents new challenges to societies. To date, there are no effective treatment options. Medications are nonselective and can lead to unwanted side effects in patients. A promising therapeutic approach is the targeted inhibition of NMDARs in the brain. NMDARs containing different subunits and splice variants display different physiological properties and play a crucial role in learning and memory, as well as in inflammatory or injury processes. They become overactivated during the course of the disease, leading to nerve cell death. 
  • 525
  • 19 May 2023
Topic Review
Cortical Hyperexcitability in the Driver’s Seat in ALS
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal disease characterized by the degeneration of cortical and spinal motor neurons. With no effective treatment available to date, patients face progressive paralysis and eventually succumb to the disease due to respiratory failure within only a few years. Intriguingly, a key feature present in both ALS patients and rodent models of the disease is cortical hyperexcitability and hyperconnectivity, the mechanisms of which still remain incompletely understood. 
  • 521
  • 28 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Clinical Sphingolipids Pathway in Parkinson’s Disease
Alterations in the sphingolipid metabolism of Parkinson’s Disease (PD) could be a potential diagnostic feature. Only around 10–15% of PD cases can be diagnosed through genetic alterations, while the remaining population, idiopathic PD (iPD), manifest without validated and specific biomarkers either before or after motor symptoms appear. Therefore, clinical diagnosis is reliant on the skills of the clinician, which can lead to misdiagnosis. IPD cases present with a spectrum of non-specific symptoms (e.g., constipation and loss of the sense of smell) that can occur up to 20 years before motor function loss (prodromal stage) and formal clinical diagnosis. Prodromal alterations in metabolites and proteins from the pathways underlying these symptoms could act as biomarkers if they could be differentiated from the broad values seen in a healthy age-matched control population. Additionally, these shifts in metabolites could be integrated with other emerging biomarkers/diagnostic tests to give a PD-specific signature.
  • 520
  • 29 Apr 2022
Topic Review
WMHs and Vascular Cognitive Impairment
White matter hyperintensities (WMHs) of presumed vascular origin are one of the imaging markers of cerebral small-vessel disease, which is prevalent in older individuals and closely associated with the occurrence and development of cognitive impairment. The heterogeneous nature of the imaging manifestations of WMHs creates difficulties for early detection and diagnosis of vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) associated with WMHs. Because the underlying pathological processes and biomarkers of WMHs and their development in cognitive impairment remain uncertain, progress in prevention and treatment is lagging. For this reason,this paper reviews the status of research on the features of WMHs related to VCI,as well as mediators associated with both WMHs and VCI,and summarizes potential treatment strategies for the prvention and intervention in WMHs associated with VCI.
  • 519
  • 24 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Transitional Model for SCZ
Translational psychiatry proposes a new psychopathological paradigm in Schizophrenia (SCZ). Firstly an important acquisition is to consider SCZ as a neurodevelopmental disease. SCZ spectrum is a condition in which genes and environment interact in different phases of the development, causing an individual neurobiological vulnerability. Continuous distress may lead to transdiagnostic conditions as emotional dysregulation, SCZ basic symptoms, psychosis. An early and timely diagnosis and treatment is mandatory, too watchful and waiting conservative approach may risk to increase DUP and worsen prognosis and outcome in some cases.In this context translational psychiatry may change psychiatrist clinical approach reconsidering old categories, stimulating a careful analysis of risk factors, and promoting the correct use of new and safer molecules.
  • 516
  • 18 Mar 2021
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