Your browser does not fully support modern features. Please upgrade for a smoother experience.
Submitted Successfully!
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic. For video creation, please contact our Academic Video Service.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1 Unays Siraj -- 2280 2026-02-27 15:34:48 |
2 format correct Catherine Yang -1223 word(s) 1057 2026-02-28 01:15:49 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Academic Video Service to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Siraj, U. Ecological and Population Dynamics. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59568 (accessed on 28 February 2026).
Siraj U. Ecological and Population Dynamics. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59568. Accessed February 28, 2026.
Siraj, Unays. "Ecological and Population Dynamics" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59568 (accessed February 28, 2026).
Siraj, U. (2026, February 27). Ecological and Population Dynamics. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59568
Siraj, Unays. "Ecological and Population Dynamics." Encyclopedia. Web. 27 February, 2026.
Ecological and Population Dynamics
Edit
This entry is adapted from: https://doi.org/10.3390/birds6020026

Ecological determinants of avian population dynamics are essential for effective wildlife management and conservation. Black and grey francolins are classified as being of least concern by the IUCN and are an ecologically significant bird in the northern regions of Pakistan. Although habitat degradation and overhunting have adversely affected their populations, research on the population structure and habitat preferences of the Totali Game Reserve, Buner District, Pakistan, remains limited. The present study applied distance sampling via the line transect method to estimate population densities and the quadrat method to assess vegetation characteristics across three distinct habitats. A statistical analysis revealed significant variations in densities across the three habitat types—agricultural lands, agroforests, and pasturelands—with both species exhibiting distinct preferences for pastureland ecosystems. Seasonal trends indicated that autumn represented the peak period for the population, driven by post-breeding surges and optimal habitat conditions. Moreover, both species demonstrated a strong affinity for habitats dominated by specific plant species, including hopbush, raspberry, barberry, and blackberry, which provide a critical resource for food, foraging, nesting, and shelter. These findings highlight the ecological importance of pasturelands and specific vegetation types for supporting the survival of these species. Furthermore, conservation efforts should prioritize the preservation and restoration of pastureland ecosystems and incorporate rigorous monitoring programs to guide adaptive management strategies aimed at mitigating population declines.

Francolinus francolinus Francolinus pondicerianus density habitat
Regional biodiversity continues to decline as human activities intensify across natural communities, leading to critical environmental issues [1]. Birds are a crucial indicator of ecosystem health [2]. Their presence or absence reflects biodiversity across ecological communities, offering insights into environmental conditions and the vitality of various habitats [3]. Species richness and the diversity of landscapes not only provide valuable information in avian spatial ecology but also highlight the significance of habitat structure in sustaining ecological processes [4][5]. In recent years, research exploring the connection between birds and vegetation has taken place primarily in natural landscapes [1][6][7]. However, with rapid urbanization, studying these relationships within protected areas has become increasingly vital [8][9].
Among avian groups, Galliformes represent one of the most ecologically and culturally significant orders. Galliformes species are primarily maintained through long-term association with human societies through domestication, subsistence hunting, and their incorporation into traditional trade [10][11][12]. The order Galliformes comprises 295 species across five families, including Phasianidae, which features chickens, pheasants, and francolins [12][13]. Globally, 41 species of francolins have been identified, including five native to the Indian subcontinent, including the black (Francolinus francolinus) and grey francolin (Francolinus pondicerianus) [14]. Birds of the francolins’ genus (Francolinus) are medium-sized birds that rely on the ground for shelter and sustenance [15][16]. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List, both species are currently classified as least concern species due to their wide geographic distributions and large global populations [17]. Further, black and grey francolins exhibit a partially overlapping global distribution. Black francolins predominantly inhabit moist lowland habitats, ranging from Cyprus to Northeast India, whereas grey francolins are typically associated with the semi-arid plains extending from Sri Lanka to the Persian Gulf [18][19]. In Pakistan, they are predominantly found in undisturbed tropical thorn forests, the Indus plan, and the lower hills of Makran and Lasbella (Balochistan), as well as protected areas of Cherat [20][21][22]. Additionally, these species are observed in protected areas like the lower hills of Kohat, Salt Range, Potohar plateau [20][23], and Buner regions [24]. The grey francolin predominantly inhabits open cultivated pasturelands but is rarely recorded above 1200 m elevation [25]. In contrast, the black francolin occupies a broader elevation range (300–2100 m), is widely distributed across Asian states, and held in particularly high esteem by local farmers [26][27]. Both francolin species play crucial roles in agriculture and forest ecosystems by consuming a variety of insects [20]. They forage in pasturelands, agricultural lands, and forests, consuming seeds, insects, shoots, ants, and caterpillars [22].
The habitat-specific distribution patterns of these birds are influenced by food availability, vegetation structure, and seasonal changes [28]. Pasturelands and agroforests are particularly vital, as they provide essential resources for nesting, foraging, and shelter [29]. Previous studies in the Salt Range and Pothwar Plateau in Pakistan have demonstrated that bird populations are strongly linked to vegetation composition and habitat characteristics [26][30]. A recent survey in Mang Game Reserve, Haripur, reported a density of 0.6 to 4.4 individuals/km2 [29], with protected areas such as Lehri Park and Lal Suhanra National Parks supporting higher densities of approximately 6 to 8 individuals/km2, respectively [20][31].
Vegetation compositions and food availability are key determinants of francolin population dynamics, as these birds depend on natural habitats for foraging and nesting [32][33]. Positive associations between plant species diversity and francolin density emphasize the importance of vegetation structure in determining habitat suitability [34]. Seasonal variation further highlights the need for temporal habitat management, as species densities peak in post-breeding autumn when environmental conditions and food availability are optimal [27]. However, anthropogenic stressors, such as the misuse of agrochemicals, industrial pollutants, and alterations in temperatures and precipitation patterns, have significantly disrupted habitat quality, spatial distribution, and reproductive success in these species [35][36]. These environmental pressures contribute to impaired growth rates, reduced body mass, and increased susceptibility to diseases [37][38].
Historically, recognized as game birds, francolins have held deep cultural significance in Pakistan, often representing social status and traditional values within local communities. Francolins have faced increasing pressure from hunting [22], deforestation [23][39], agricultural expansion [40], and urbanization [7], all of which contributed to a sharp population decline in recent decades. However, black and grey francolins are legally protected in designated regions of Pakistan, with controlled hunting permitted during the non-breeding season [41]. Despite their ecological importance, research on the population dynamics and habitat preferences of black and grey francolin remains limited. These research gaps are particularly evident in protected areas such as the Totali Game Reserve, a key conservation site in northern Pakistan. This study aims to address four key questions: (1) Do black and grey francolin populations differ across habitat types within the study area? (2) Do their populations vary seasonally across these habitats? (3) Which habitats are mostly preferred by these species? (4) Do plant species occurring in various habitats positively or negatively affect their populations? We hypothesize that the populations of black and grey francolin in the Totali Game Reserve vary significantly across habitat types and seasons. We further predict that specific habitats and their associated plant species have measurable positive or negative effects on the abundance and habitat preferences of these species. This study provides a foundation for establishing conservation priorities and sets the stage for future long-term studies on francolin ecology.

References

  1. Xu, W.; Yu, J.; Huang, P.; Zheng, D.; Lin, Y.; Huang, Z.; Zhao, Y.; Dong, J.; Zhu, Z.; Fu, W. Relationship between vegetation habitats and bird communities in urban mountain parks. Animals 2022, 12, 2470.
  2. Hedblom, M.; Murgui, E. Urban bird research in a global perspective. In Ecology and Conservation of Birds in Urban Environments; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2017; pp. 3–10.
  3. Panda, B.P.; Prusty, B.A.K.; Panda, B.; Pradhan, A.; Parida, S.P. Habitat heterogeneity influences avian feeding guild composition in urban landscapes: Evidence from Bhubaneswar, India. Ecol. Process. 2021, 10, 31.
  4. Leveau, L.M.; Isla, F.I.; Bellocq, M.I. Urbanization and the temporal homogenization of bird communities: A case study in central Argentina. Urban Ecosyst. 2015, 18, 1461–1476.
  5. Smith, A.C.; Francis, C.M.; Fahrig, L. Similar effects of residential and non-residential vegetation on bird diversity in suburban neighbourhoods. Urban Ecosyst. 2014, 17, 27–44.
  6. Ciach, M.; Fröhlich, A. Habitat type, food resources, noise and light pollution explain the species composition, abundance and stability of a winter bird assemblage in an urban environment. Urban Ecosyst. 2017, 20, 547–559.
  7. Sulaiman, S.; Mohamad, N.H.N.; Idilfitri, S. Contribution of vegetation in urban parks as habitat for selective bird community. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2013, 85, 267–281.
  8. Jokimäki, J.; Suhonen, J.; Kaisanlahti-Jokimäki, M.L. Urban core areas are important for species conservation: A European-level analysis of breeding bird species. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2018, 178, 73–81.
  9. McKinney, M.L. Effects of urbanization on species richness: A review of plants and animals. Urban Ecosyst. 2008, 11, 161–176.
  10. Del Hoyo, J.; Del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. Handbook of the Birds of the World; Lynx: Barcelona, Spain, 1992; Volume 1.
  11. Fuller, R.A.; Garson, P.J. Pheasants: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000–2004; IUCN: Gland, Switzerland, 2000; Volume 51.
  12. Tian, S.; Xu, J.; Li, J.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, Y. Research advances of Galliformes since 1990 and future prospects. Avian Res. 2018, 9, 32.
  13. Guan, X.; Rao, X.; Song, G.; Wang, D. The evolution of courtship displays in Galliformes. Avian Res. 2022, 13, 100008.
  14. Forcina, G.; Guerrini, M.; Khaliq, I.; Khan, A.A.; Barbanera, F. Human-Modified Biogeographic Patterns and Conservation in Game Birds: The Dilemma of the Black Francolin (Francolinus francolinus, Phasianidae) in Pakistan. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0205059.
  15. Anderson, G.; Holmes, C. Galliformes: Species, Varieties, and Behavior. In Gamebird Medicine and Management; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 2022; pp. 13–35.
  16. Pathan, A.J.; Khan, S.; Akhtar, N.; Saeed, K. Diversity and distribution of avian fauna of Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Adv. Zool. 2014, 2014, 430297.
  17. BirdLife, International. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018. Available online: http://www.birdlife.org (accessed on 11 May 2025).
  18. Khan, W.A. Studies on the Comparative Ecology of the South Persian Black Partridge, Francolinus francolinus henrici, and the Northern Grey Partridge, Francolinus pondicerianus interpositus, in Lal Suhanra National Park, Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan. Ph.D. Thesis, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 2010.
  19. Forcina, G.; Panayides, P.; Guerrini, M.; Nardi, F.; Gupta, B.; Mori, E.; Al-Sheikhly, O.; Mansoori, J.; Khaliq, I.; Rank, D.; et al. Molecular evolution of the Asian francolins (Francolinus, Galliformes): A modern reappraisal of a classic study in speciation. Mol. Phylogenetics Evol. 2012, 65, 523–534.
  20. Mahmood, S.; Mahmood, T.; Rais, M.; Qureshi, I.Z.; Nadeem, M.S. A Comparative Study on the Populations and Habitats of the Grey Francolin (Francolinus pondicerianus) and the Black Francolin (Francolinus francolinus) in Lehri Nature Park, Punjab, Pakistan. Podoces 2010, 5, 42–53.
  21. Blumstein, D.T. The Birds of Pakistan. Mt. Res. Dev. 1993, 13, 112–113.
  22. Khan, M.T.; Rehman, F.U.; Noreen, S.; Ullah, N.; Ilyas, M.; Muhammad, S.; Tariq, Z. Population Estimation and Habitat Preference of grey francolin and Black Francolin Species in Darmalak and Darwazai Game Reserve, District Kohat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. Int. J. Agric. Biol. 2024, 31, 129–136.
  23. Khalil, S.; Anwar, M.; Hussain, I. Breeding Biology of grey francolin (Francolinus pondicerianus) in Salt Range, Pakistan. Pak. J. Zool. 2016, 48, 115–123.
  24. Ullah, A.; Shams, S.; Ayaz, S.; Ibáñez-Arancibia, E.; Siraj, U.; De los Rios-Escalante, P.R.; Badshah, F. Influence of Nesting Habitat and Nest Emplacement on the Breeding Success of the Black Francolin (Francolinus francolinus, Phasianidae): A Case Study from Pakistan. Birds 2025, 6, 16.
  25. Sangam Khalil, M.A.; Hussain, I. 17. Population estimation of grey francolin (Francolinus Pondicerianus) in salt range, Punjab, Pakistan. Pure Appl. Biol. (PAB) 2021, 4, 584–596.
  26. Hussain, I.; Khalil, S. Population Biology of the grey francolin (Francolinus pondicerianus) in an Agro-Ecosystem of the Pothwar Plateau, Pakistan. Avian Res. 2012, 3, 91–102.
  27. Kumar, A.; Sharma, D.K.; Lochan, R.; Dewan, S.; Negi, S. Relative Abundance, Habitat Preference, and Breeding Ecology of Asian Black Francolin, Francolinus francolinus asiae (Bonaparte, 1856) (Galliformes: Phasianidae) from North-Western Himalaya. J.-Asia-Pac. Biodivers. 2020, 13, 162–168.
  28. Kaleri, R.R.; Kaleri, H.A.; Solangi, G.M.; Mangi, R.A.; Solangi, A.W.; Mangrio, Z.A.; Khushk, F.A.; Memon, M.A.; Soomro, M.A.; Bhuptani, D.K.; et al. Population Density of grey francolin (Francolinus Pondicrianus L.) in District Tando Allahyar, Sindh, Pakistan. J. Bioresour. Manag. 2023, 10, 1.
  29. Khan, M.F.; Awan, M.S.; Nayyer, A.Q.; Mehmood, K.; Khattak, M.N.K. A Comparative Study on the Population and Habitats of the Grey Francolin (Francolinus pondicerianus) and Black Francolin (Francolinus francolinus) in Mang Game Reserve, Haripur, Pakistan. J. Anim. Plant Sci. 2015, 25, 101–107.
  30. Aziz, M.; Khalid, Z.; Shahid, M.; Akhter, A.; Aziz, R. Population Density and Habitat Analysis of grey francolin (Ortygornis pondicerianus) in Taunsa Wildlife Sanctuary, Punjab. Pak. J. Wildl. Ecol. 2024, 8, 27–35.
  31. Khan, M. Studies on the Biology, Habitat, Distribution Pattern and Food of the Black Partridge (Francolinus francolinus) in Tehsil, Faisalabad. Master’s Thesis, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, 1989; p. 118.
  32. Tryjanowski, P.; Møller, A.P.; Morelli, F.; Biaduń, W.; Brauze, T.; Ciach, M.; Czechowski, P.; Czyż, S.; Dulisz, B.; Goławski, A.; et al. Urbanization affects neophilia and risk-taking at bird-feeders. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 28575.
  33. Khalil, S.; Anwar, M.; Hussain, T.; Rafay, M.; Ashraf, I.; Abdullah, M.; Safeer, M.; Rasool, A. Food composition of the grey francolin Francolinus pondicerianus in the salt range, Punjab, Pakistan. Podoces 2016, 11, 13–20.
  34. Kakakhel, S.F.B. Distribution and Habitat Selection of grey francolin (Francolinus pondicerianus) in Swegali Game Reserve District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. J. Bioresour. Manag. 2020, 7, 27–32.
  35. Kumar, S. Environmental Contaminants and Their Impact on Wildlife. In Toxicology and Human Health: Environmental Exposures and Biomarkers; Gupta, R.C., Abdelrasoul, G.N., Kucuk, O., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2023; pp. 3–26.
  36. Saaristo, M.; Brodin, T.; Balshine, S.; Bertram, M.G.; Brooks, B.W.; Ehlman, S.M.; McCallum, E.S.; Sih, A.; Sundin, J.; Wong, B.B.; et al. Direct and indirect effects of chemical contaminants on the behaviour, ecology and evolution of wildlife. Proc. R. Soc. 2018, 285, 20181297.
  37. Huston, T.M. The influence of different environmental temperatures on immature fowl. Poult. Sci. 1965, 44, 1032–1036.
  38. McKechnie, A.E.; Dunn, P. Physiological and morphological effects of climate change. In Effects of Climate Change on Birds; Oxford Academic: New York, NY, USA, 2019; Volume 42, pp. 120–133.
  39. Forcina, G.; Guerrini, M.; Zeder, M.A.; Barbanera, F. The Black Francolin: Assessing the Origins of a Prized Courtly Bird in an Interdisciplinary Manner. In Animals and Courts: Europe, c. 1200–1800; Hengerer, M., Weber, N., Eds.; De Gruyter: Berlin, Germany, 2019; pp. 43–54.
  40. Iqubal, P.; Mcgowan, P.J.; Carroll, J.P.; Rahmani, A.R. Home range size, habitat use and nesting success of Swamp Francolin Francolinus gularis on agricultural lands in northern India. Bird Conserv. Int. 2003, 13, 127–138.
  41. Khan, W.A.; Afsar Mian, A.M. Comparative Population Biology of Black (Francolinus francolinus) and Grey (F. pondicerianus) Francolins under Lal Suhanra National Park (Pakistan) Conditions. Pak. J. Zool. 2013, 45, 949–958.
More
©Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons-Attribution ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Biodiversity Conservation
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register : Unays Siraj
View Times: 2
Entry Collection: Environmental Sciences
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 28 Feb 2026
Table of Contents
    Notice
    You are not a member of the advisory board for this topic. If you want to update advisory board member profile, please contact office@encyclopedia.pub.
    OK
    Confirm
    Only members of the Encyclopedia advisory board for this topic are allowed to note entries. Would you like to become an advisory board member of the Encyclopedia?
    Yes
    No
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    There is no comment~
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    ${ selectedItem.replyTextCharacter }/${ selectedItem.replyMaxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    Confirm
    Are you sure to Delete?
    Yes No
    Academic Video Service
    Feedback