Regional biodiversity continues to decline as human activities intensify across natural communities, leading to critical environmental issues [1]. Birds are a crucial indicator of ecosystem health [2]. Their presence or absence reflects biodiversity across ecological communities, offering insights into environmental conditions and the vitality of various habitats [3]. Species richness and the diversity of landscapes not only provide valuable information in avian spatial ecology but also highlight the significance of habitat structure in sustaining ecological processes ^[4][5][4,5]. In recent years, research exploring the connection between birds and vegetation has taken place primarily in natural landscapes ^[1][6][7][1,6,7]. However, with rapid urbanization, studying these relationships within protected areas has become increasingly vital ^[8][9][8,9].

Among avian groups, Galliformes represent one of the most ecologically and culturally significant orders. Galliformes species are primarily maintained through long-term association with human societies through domestication, subsistence hunting, and their incorporation into traditional trade ^[10][11][12][10,11,12]. The order Galliformes comprises 295 species across five families, including Phasianidae, which features chickens, pheasants, and francolins ^[12][13][12,13]. Globally, 41 species of francolins have been identified, including five native to the Indian subcontinent, including the black (Francolinus francolinus) and grey francolin (Francolinus pondicerianus) [14]. Birds of the francolins’ genus (Francolinus) are medium-sized birds that rely on the ground for shelter and sustenance ^[15][16][15,16]. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List, both species are currently classified as least concern species due to their wide geographic distributions and large global populations [17]. Further, black and grey francolins exhibit a partially overlapping global distribution. Black francolins predominantly inhabit moist lowland habitats, ranging from Cyprus to Northeast India, whereas grey francolins are typically associated with the semi-arid plains extending from Sri Lanka to the Persian Gulf ^[18][19][18,19]. In Pakistan, they are predominantly found in undisturbed tropical thorn forests, the Indus plan, and the lower hills of Makran and Lasbella (Balochistan), as well as protected areas of Cherat ^[20][21][22][20,21,22]. Additionally, these species are observed in protected areas like the lower hills of Kohat, Salt Range, Potohar plateau ^[20][23][20,23], and Buner regions [24]. The grey francolin predominantly inhabits open cultivated pasturelands but is rarely recorded above 1200 m elevation [25]. In contrast, the black francolin occupies a broader elevation range (300–2100 m), is widely distributed across Asian states, and held in particularly high esteem by local farmers ^[26][27][26,27]. Both francolin species play crucial roles in agriculture and forest ecosystems by consuming a variety of insects [20]. They forage in pasturelands, agricultural lands, and forests, consuming seeds, insects, shoots, ants, and caterpillars [22].

The habitat-specific distribution patterns of these birds are influenced by food availability, vegetation structure, and seasonal changes [28]. Pasturelands and agroforests are particularly vital, as they provide essential resources for nesting, foraging, and shelter [29]. Previous studies in the Salt Range and Pothwar Plateau in Pakistan have demonstrated that bird populations are strongly linked to vegetation composition and habitat characteristics ^[26][30][26,30]. A recent survey in Mang Game Reserve, Haripur, reported a density of 0.6 to 4.4 individuals/km2 [29], with protected areas such as Lehri Park and Lal Suhanra National Parks supporting higher densities of approximately 6 to 8 individuals/km2, respectively ^[20][31][20,31].

Vegetation compositions and food availability are key determinants of francolin population dynamics, as these birds depend on natural habitats for foraging and nesting ^[32][33][32,33]. Positive associations between plant species diversity and francolin density emphasize the importance of vegetation structure in determining habitat suitability [34]. Seasonal variation further highlights the need for temporal habitat management, as species densities peak in post-breeding autumn when environmental conditions and food availability are optimal [27]. However, anthropogenic stressors, such as the misuse of agrochemicals, industrial pollutants, and alterations in temperatures and precipitation patterns, have significantly disrupted habitat quality, spatial distribution, and reproductive success in these species ^[35][36][35,36]. These environmental pressures contribute to impaired growth rates, reduced body mass, and increased susceptibility to diseases ^[37][38][37,38].

Historically, recognized as game birds, francolins have held deep cultural significance in Pakistan, often representing social status and traditional values within local communities. Francolins have faced increasing pressure from hunting [22], deforestation ^[23][39][23,39], agricultural expansion [40], and urbanization [7], all of which contributed to a sharp population decline in recent decades. However, black and grey francolins are legally protected in designated regions of Pakistan, with controlled hunting permitted during the non-breeding season [41]. Despite their ecological importance, research on the population dynamics and habitat preferences of black and grey francolin remains limited. These research gaps are particularly evident in protected areas such as the Totali Game Reserve, a key conservation site in northern Pakistan. This study aims to address four key questions: (1) Do black and grey francolin populations differ across habitat types within the study area? (2) Do their populations vary seasonally across these habitats? (3) Which habitats are mostly preferred by these species? (4) Do plant species occurring in various habitats positively or negatively affect their populations? We hypothesize that the populations of black and grey francolin in the Totali Game Reserve vary significantly across habitat types and seasons. We further predict that specific habitats and their associated plant species have measurable positive or negative effects on the abundance and habitat preferences of these species. This study provides a foundation for establishing conservation priorities and sets the stage for future long-term studies on francolin ecology.