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Virus-like particles (VLPs) are empty, nanoscale structures morphologically resembling viruses. Internal cavity, noninfectious, and particulate nature with a high density of repeating epitopes, make them an ideal platform for vaccine development and drug delivery.
Feature | Bacteria | Insect Cells | Mammalian Cells | Plant | Yeast |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Production cost | Low | High | High | Moderate | Low |
Growth media | Simple | Complex | Complex | Simple | Simple |
Growth | Fast | Slow | Slow | Very slow | Fast |
Growth duration | Very small | Small | Small | Long | Small |
Indoor/Outdoor | Indoor | Indoor | Indoor | Outdoor/polyhouse | Indoor |
Scale-up | Easy | Very difficult | Very difficult | Difficult | Easy |
Secretion | No | Yes | Yes | NA | Yes |
Enveloped/non-enveloped | Non-enveloped | Enveloped/Non-enveloped | Enveloped/Non-enveloped | NA | Non-enveloped/Enveloped possible |
Speed of transformant screening | Very fast | Slow | Slow | Very slow | Fast |
Effect of seasonal variations | No | No | No | Yes | No |
S. No | Protein Antigen | Virus | Protein Localization |
Promoter | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | VP2 | Human parvovirus 4 | IC | Hybrid GAL10-PYK1promoter | [38] |
2 | Capsid protein | Hepatitis E virus | IC | GAL promoter | [39] |
3 | Capsid protein | Porcine circovirus type 2 | EC | GPD, TEF2 | [40] |
4 | Nucleocapsid protein | Sendai virus | IC | GAL7 | [41] |
5 | VP2, VP1 | Human bocaviruses | IC | [42] | |
6 | Surface antigen | Hepatitis B virus | IC | GAL | [43][44][45] |
7 | p55(gag) | HIV-1 | EC | [46] | |
8 | VP1 | Human polyomaviruses | IC | GAL | [47] |
9 | L1 | HPV 16 | IC | GAL10 | [48][49] |
10 | Nucleocapsid protein | Tioman virus | IC | GAL10 | [50] |
11 | L-HDAg and surface antigen | Hepatitis delta virus | IC | GAD | [51] |
12 | Capsid protein | Porcine circovirus type 2 | IC | GAL10 | [52] |
13 | Capsid protein | Enterovirus 71 | IC | GAL10 | [53] |
14 | VP1 | Human and non-human polyomaviruses | IC | GAL | [54] |
15 | Capsid protein | Adeno-associated virus | IC | GAL1 | [55] |
16 | Nucleocapsid protein | Human parainfluenza virus 4 | IC | GAL7 | [56] |
17 * | Coat protein | Cacteriophage Qbeta virus | IC | GAL | [57] |
18 | Capsid protein | Nervous necrosis virus | IC | GAL | [58] |
19 | VP1,2 | Parvovirus B19 | IC | ADH2/GAPDH | [59][60] |
20 | VP1 | Bird polyomaviruses | IC | GAL | [61] |
21 | P1 | Enterovirus 71 and Coxsackievirus A16 | IC | GAL1 | [62] |
22 | Capsid protein | Porcine circovirus type 2 | IC | GAL1 | [63] |
23 | VP2,6,7 | Rotavirus | IC | PGK1, TEF1 | [64][65] |
24 | VP2 | Human parvovirus 4 | IC | GAL1-10 | [66] |
25 | Nucleocapsid protein | Human parainfluenza virus 2 | IC | GAL | [67] |
26 | Nucleocapsid protein | Menangle virus | IC | GAL7 | [68] |
27 | Gag | HIV-1 | IC | GAP | [69] |
28 | VP2 | Porcine parvovirus | IC | GAL1-10 | [70] |
29 | P1, CD3 | Coxsackievirus A16 | IC | GAL1 | [71] |
30 | Capsid protein | Porcine circovirus type 2 | IC | GAL | [72] |
31 | VP1,2 | Hepatitis B/Polyomavirus | IC | GAL7 | [73] |
32 | VP1 | Hamster polyomavirus | IC | [74] | |
33 | L1/L1 + L2 | Cottontail rabbit papillomavirus | IC | GAL1-10 | [75] |
34 | L1 | HPV 11 | IC | GAL | [76][77][78] |
35 | Coat protein | Potyvirus (Johnsongrass mosaic virus) | IC | ADC1 | [79] |
36 | P1, CD3 | Poliovirus type I | IC | [80] | |
37 | HIV-1 | IC | [81] | ||
38 | L1 | HPV 16 | IC | GAL | [82] |
39 | L1 | HPV 6,11 16 | IC | GAL | [83] |
40 | VP1 with Puumala hantavirus nucleocapsid protein segments | Hamster polyomavirus | IC | Hybrid GAL10-PYK1 | [84] |
41 | M protein | Hepatitis B virus | IC | GAL10/CYC1 | [85] |
42 | VP1,2 | Goose hemorrhagic polyomavirus | IC | GAL | [86] |
43 | CEA/VP1 | Hamster polyomavirus | IC | GAL | [87] |
44 | E7 oncoprotein of HPV16 | Hepatitis B virus | IC | [88] | |
45 | Capsid protein | Red-spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus | IC | GAL10 | [89] |
46 | L1 | HPV 58 | IC | GAL10 | [90] |
47 | C69R variant of surface antigen | Hepatitis B virus | IC | GAL10/CYC1 | [91] |
48 | VP1 | Human polyomavirus 2 | IC | GAL | [92] |
49 | VP2 | Parvovirus B19 | IC | GAL1 | [93] |
50 | L1 | HPV 11 | IC | GAL110-11 | [94] |
51 | VP1 with pre-S1 region of the Hepatitis B virus | Hamster polyomavirus | IC | GAL | [95] |
52 | Surface antigen | Hepatitis B virus | IC | GAL10 | [96] |
53 | L1 | HPV 16 | IC | [97] |
S. No | Protein Antigen | Virus | Protein Localization |
Promoter | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Capsid protein | Red-spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus | IC | Pw42-2 | [98] |
2 | ZS and S | Zika virus | IC | AOX1 | [99] |
3 | 112-608aa of the ORF2 | Hepatitis E virus | EC | AOX1 | [100] |
4 | P1 and CD3 | Poliovirus type I | IC | AOX1 | [101][102] |
5 | Chimeric HPV-HIV L1P18 protein | HPV and HIV | IC | GAP | [103] |
6 | NY-ESO-1 cancer testis antigen | Norovirus | EC | AOX1 | [104] |
7 | Surface antigen | Hepatitis C virus | IC | AOX1 | [105][106] |
8 | P1 and 3CD | Enterovirus 71 | EC | AOX1 | [107][108] |
9 | E domain III | Dengue Virus | IC | AOX1 | [109][110] |
10 | P1 and 3CD | Coxsackievirus A16 | EC | GAP | [111] |
11 | VP1 | Norovirus | EC | AOX1 | [112] |
12 | E antigen | Dengue virus | IC | AOX1 | [113][114][115][116][117][118] |
13 | prME | Japanese encephalitis virus | EC | AOX1 | [119] |
14 | E antigen | Dengue virus | EC | GAP | [120] |
15 | Matrix protein | Nipah virus | IC | AOX1 | [121] |
16 | P1 and 3CD | Enterovirus D68 | IC | AOX1 | [122] |
17 | prM and E protein | Tick-borne encephalitis virus | EC | GAP | [123] |
18 | P1 and 3CD | Coxsackievirus A10 | IC | AOX1 | [124] |
19 | Surface antigen | Hepatitis B virus | IC | AOX1 | [125][126][127][128][129][130][131] |
20 | prM and E protein | Dengue virus | IC | GAP | [132] |
21 | L1 | HPV16 and 18 | IC | AOX1 | [133][134][135] |
22 | L1 | HPV 52 | AOX1 | [136] | |
23 | Capsid protein | Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus | EC | AOX1 | [137] |
24 | L1 | HPV 58 | IC | AOX1 | [138] |
25 | Envelope protein domain III (EDIII), hepatitis B surface antigen | Dengue virus | IC | AOX1 | [139] |
26 | VP2 | Infectious bursal disease virus | IC | AOX1 | [140] |
27 | P1 and 3CD | Coxsackievirus A16 | IC | AOX1 | [141] |
28 | Core protein | Hepatitis B virus | IC | AOX1 | [142][143] |
29 | E protein | Dengue virus | IC | AOX1 | [144] |
30 | L2 | Grapevine fanleaf virus | EC | AOX1 | [145] |
31 | Capsid protein (VP60) | Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus | IC | AOX1 | [146] |
32 | HBc-influenza virus LAH domain | Hepatitis B/Influenza H3N2 virus | IC | AOX1 | [147] |
33 | CoreE1E2 Protein | Hepatitis C virus | EC | AOX1 | [148] |
34 | P1 and 3CD | Coxsackievirus A6 | IC | AOX1 | [149] |
35 | L1, L2 | HPV 16 | IC | AOX1 | [150] |
36 | prM/Env | Japanese encephalitis virus | IC | AOX1 | [151] |
37 | Den2E-HBsAg | Dengue/Hepatitis B virus | IC | AOX1 | [152] |
38 | prM and E protein | Dengue virus | IC | GAP | [153] |
39 | Polyprotein | Chikungunya virus | EC | AOX1 | [154] |
40 | L1 | HPV 16 | [155] | ||
41 | Major capsid protein | Iridovirus | EC | AOX1 | [156] |
42 | Surface antigen | Hepatitis B virus | [157] | ||
43 | VP1 | Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus | IC | AOX1 | [158] |
44 | L1 | Bovine papillomavirus 1,2,4 | [159] | ||
45 | L1 | HPV 16 | IC | AOX1 | [160] |
46 | Capsid protein | Norovirus | IC | AOX1 | [161] |
47 | L1 | HPV 16 | EC | PGK1 | [162] |
48 | Core protein | Hepatitis B virus | [163] | ||
49 | VP1 | Calicivirus virus | EC | AOX1 | [164] |
50 | Core protein | Hepatitis C virus | IC | AOX1 | [165][166][167][168] |