Virus-like particles (VLPs) are empty, nanoscale structures morphologically resembling viruses. Internal cavity, noninfectious, and particulate nature with a high density of repeating epitopes, make them an ideal platform for vaccine development and drug delivery.
Feature | Bacteria | Insect Cells | Mammalian Cells | Plant | Yeast |
---|
S. No | Protein Antigen | Virus | Protein Localization |
Promoter | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Production cost | Low | High | High | Moderate | Low |
Growth media | Simple | Complex | Complex | Simple | Simple |
Growth | Fast | Slow | Slow | ||
1 | |||||
Very slow | |||||
Fast | |||||
Growth duration | Very small | Small | Small | Long | Small |
Indoor/Outdoor | Indoor | Indoor | Indoor | Outdoor/polyhouse | Indoor |
Scale-up | Easy | Very difficult | Very difficult | Difficult | Easy |
Secretion | No | Yes | Yes | NA | Yes |
Enveloped/non-enveloped | Non-enveloped | Enveloped/Non-enveloped | Enveloped/Non-enveloped | NA | Non-enveloped/Enveloped possible |
Speed of transformant screening | Very fast | Slow | Slow | Very slow | Fast |
Effect of seasonal variations | No | No | No | Yes | No |
S. No | Protein Antigen | Virus | Protein Localization |
Promoter | References | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | VP2 | Human parvovirus 4 | IC | Capsid proteinHybrid GAL10-PYK1promoter | [62] | [38] | ||||||||||||||
Red-spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus | IC | Pw42-2 | [ | 123 | ] | [98] | 2 | Capsid protein | Hepatitis E virus | IC | GAL promoter | |||||||||
2 | ZS and S | Zika virus | [ | 63 | ] | [39] | ||||||||||||||
IC | AOX1 | [ | 124 | ] | [99] | 3 | Capsid protein | Porcine circovirus type 2 | EC | GPD, TEF2 | [64] | [40] | ||||||||
3 | 112-608aa of the ORF2 | Hepatitis E virus | EC | AOX1 | [125] | [100] | 4 | Nucleocapsid protein | Sendai virus | |||||||||||
4 | P1 and CD3 | IC | GAL7 | Poliovirus type I | IC | AOX1 | [65] | [41] | ||||||||||||
[ | 126 | , | 127 | ] | [101][102] | 5 | VP2, VP1 | Human bocaviruses | IC | |||||||||||
5 | [ | 66 | Chimeric HPV-HIV L1P18 protein | ] | [42] | |||||||||||||||
HPV and HIV | IC | GAP | [ | 128 | ] | [103] | 6 | Surface antigen | Hepatitis B virus | IC | GAL | [67,68,69] | ||||||||
6 | NY-ESO-1 cancer testis antigen | [ | Norovirus | EC | 43 | AOX1][44][45] | ||||||||||||||
[ | 129 | ] | [ | 104 | ] | 7 | p55(gag) | HIV-1 | EC | [70] | [46] | |||||||||
7 | Surface antigen | Hepatitis C virus | IC | AOX1 | [130, | 8 | VP1 | Human polyomaviruses | IC | GAL | [71] | [47] | ||||||||
9 | L1 | HPV 16 | IC | GAL10 | [72,73] | [48][49] | ||||||||||||||
10 | Nucleocapsid protein | Tioman virus | IC | GAL10 | [74] | [50] | ||||||||||||||
11 | L-HDAg and surface antigen | Hepatitis delta virus | IC | GAD | [75] | [51] | ||||||||||||||
12 | Capsid protein | Porcine circovirus type 2 | IC | GAL10 | [76] | [52] | ||||||||||||||
113 | ] | [ | 114 | ] | [115][116 | 13 | Capsid protein | Enterovirus 71 | IC | GAL10 | [77] | [53] | ||||||||
] | 14 | VP1 | Human and non-human polyomaviruses | IC | GAL | [78] | [54] | |||||||||||||
[ | 15 | Capsid protein | Adeno-associated virus | IC | GAL1 | [79] | [55] | |||||||||||||
117 | 16 | Nucleocapsid protein | Human parainfluenza virus 4 | IC | GAL7 | [80] | [56] | |||||||||||||
] | 17 * | Coat protein | Cacteriophage Qbeta virus | IC | GAL | [81] | [57] | |||||||||||||
[ | 18 | Capsid protein | Nervous necrosis virus | IC | GAL | [82] | [58] | |||||||||||||
118 | ] | |||||||||||||||||||
13 | prME | Japanese encephalitis virus | EC | AOX1 | [144] | [119] | ||||||||||||||
14 | E antigen | Dengue virus | EC | GAP | [145] | [120] | ||||||||||||||
15 | Matrix protein | Nipah virus | IC | AOX1 | [146] | [121] | ||||||||||||||
16 | P1 and 3CD | Enterovirus D68 | IC | AOX1 | [147] | [122] | ||||||||||||||
17 | prM and E protein | Tick-borne encephalitis virus | EC | GAP | [148] | [123] | 19 | |||||||||||||
18 | P1 and 3CD | Coxsackievirus A10 | IC | AOX1 | [149] | [124] | VP1,2 | Parvovirus B19 | IC | ADH2/GAPDH | [83,84 | |||||||||
19 | Surface antigen | ] | Hepatitis B virus | [ | 59][60] | |||||||||||||||
IC | AOX1 | [ | 150 | , | 125 | 151,152, | ][126 | 153, | ][127 | 154, | ] | 155,156] | [[128][ | 20 | VP1 | Bird polyomaviruses | IC | GAL | [85] | [61] |
129 | 21 | P1 | Enterovirus 71 and Coxsackievirus A16 | IC | GAL1 | [86] | [62] | |||||||||||||
22 | Capsid protein | Porcine circovirus type 2 | IC | GAL1 | [87] | [63] | ||||||||||||||
23 | VP2,6,7 | Rotavirus | IC | PGK1, TEF1 | [88,89] | [64][65] | ||||||||||||||
24 | VP2 | Human parvovirus 4 | IC | GAL1-10 | [90] | [66] | ||||||||||||||
25 | Nucleocapsid protein | Human parainfluenza virus 2 | IC | GAL | [91] | [67] | ||||||||||||||
26 | Nucleocapsid protein | Menangle virus | IC | GAL7 | [92] | [68] | ||||||||||||||
] | [ | 130 | ] | [ | 131 | 27 | Gag | HIV-1 | IC | GAP | [93] | [69] | ||||||||
28 | VP2 | Porcine parvovirus | IC | GAL1-10 | [94] | [70] | ||||||||||||||
29 | P1, CD3 | Coxsackievirus A16 | IC | GAL1 | [95] | [71] | ||||||||||||||
[ | 103 | ] | [ | 79 | ] | |||||||||||||||
36 | P1, CD3 | Poliovirus type I | IC | [104] | [80] | |||||||||||||||
37 | HIV-1 | IC | [105] | [81] | ||||||||||||||||
38 | L1 | HPV 16 | IC | GAL | [106] | [82] | ||||||||||||||
39 | L1 | HPV 6,11 16 | IC | GAL | [107] | [83] | ||||||||||||||
40 | VP1 with Puumala hantavirus nucleocapsid protein segments | Hamster polyomavirus | IC | Hybrid GAL10-PYK1 | [108] | [84] | ||||||||||||||
41 | M protein | Hepatitis B virus | IC | GAL10/CYC1 | [109] | [85] | ||||||||||||||
42 | VP1,2 | Goose hemorrhagic polyomavirus | IC | GAL | [110] | [86] | ||||||||||||||
43 | CEA/VP1 | Hamster polyomavirus | IC | GAL | [111] | [87] | ||||||||||||||
131 | ] | [ | 105 | ] | [106] | |||||||||||||||
8 | P1 and 3CD | Enterovirus 71 | EC | AOX1 | [132,133] | [107][108] | ||||||||||||||
9 | E domain III | Dengue Virus | IC | AOX1 | [134,135] | [109][110] | ||||||||||||||
10 | P1 and 3CD | Coxsackievirus A16 | EC | GAP | [136] | [111] | ||||||||||||||
11 | VP1 | Norovirus | EC | AOX1 | [137] | [112] | ||||||||||||||
12 | E antigen | Dengue virus | IC | AOX1 | [138,139,140,141,142,143] | [] | ||||||||||||||
20 | prM and E protein | Dengue virus | IC | GAP | [157] | [132] | ||||||||||||||
21 | L1 | HPV16 and 18 | IC | AOX1 | [158,159,160] | [133][134][135] | ||||||||||||||
22 | L1 | HPV 52 | AOX1 | [161] | [136] | |||||||||||||||
23 | Capsid protein | Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus | EC | AOX1 | [162] | [137] | ||||||||||||||
24 | L1 | HPV 58 | IC | AOX1 | [163] | [138] | ||||||||||||||
25 | Envelope protein domain III (EDIII), hepatitis B surface antigen | Dengue virus | IC | AOX1 | [164] | [139] | ||||||||||||||
26 | VP2 | Infectious bursal disease virus | IC | AOX1 | [165] | [140] | ||||||||||||||
27 | P1 and 3CD | Coxsackievirus A16 | IC | AOX1 | [166] | [141] | ||||||||||||||
28 | Core protein | Hepatitis B virus | IC | AOX1 | [167, | [142 | 168] | ][143] | ||||||||||||
29 | E protein | Dengue virus | IC | AOX1 | [169] | [144] | 30 | Capsid protein | ||||||||||||
30 | Porcine circovirus type 2 | IC | GAL | [ | 96] | [72] | ||||||||||||||
L2 | Grapevine fanleaf virus | EC | AOX1 | [ | 170] | [145] | 31 | VP1,2 | Hepatitis B/Polyomavirus | IC | GAL7 | [97] | [73] | |||||||
31 | Capsid protein (VP60) | Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus | IC | AOX1 | [171] | [146] | 32 | VP1 | Hamster polyomavirus | |||||||||||
32 | HBc-influenza virus LAH domain | IC | Hepatitis B/Influenza H3N2 virus | IC | AOX1 | [98] | [74] | |||||||||||||
[ | 172 | 33 | L1/L1 + L2 | Cottontail rabbit papillomavirus | IC | GAL1-10 | [99] | [75] | ||||||||||||
] | [ | 147 | ] | |||||||||||||||||
33 | CoreE1E2 Protein | Hepatitis C virus | EC | AOX1 | [173] | [148] | 34 | L1 | HPV 11 | IC | ||||||||||
34 | P1 and 3CD | Coxsackievirus A6 | GAL | [ | 100,101,102] | [76][77][78] | ||||||||||||||
IC | AOX1 | [ | 174 | ] | [149] | 35 | Coat protein | Potyvirus (Johnsongrass mosaic virus) | IC | |||||||||||
35 | L1, L2 | HPV 16 | IC | ADC1 | AOX1 | [175] | [150] | |||||||||||||
36 | prM/Env | Japanese encephalitis virus | IC | AOX1 | [176] | [151] | ||||||||||||||
37 | Den2E-HBsAg | Dengue/Hepatitis B virus | IC | AOX1 | [177] | [152] | ||||||||||||||
38 | prM and E protein | Dengue virus | IC | GAP | [178] | [153] | ||||||||||||||
39 | Polyprotein | Chikungunya virus | EC | AOX1 | [179] | [154] | ||||||||||||||
40 | L1 | HPV 16 | [180] | [155] | ||||||||||||||||
41 | Major capsid protein | Iridovirus | EC | AOX1 | [181] | [156] | ||||||||||||||
42 | Surface antigen | Hepatitis B virus | [182] | [157] | ||||||||||||||||
43 | VP1 | Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus | IC | AOX1 | [183] | [158] | 44 | E7 oncoprotein of HPV16 | Hepatitis B virus | IC | [112] | [88] | ||||||||
44 | L1 | Bovine papillomavirus 1,2,4 | [184] | [159] | 45 | Capsid protein | Red-spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus | IC | GAL10 | [113] | [89] | |||||||||
45 | L1 | HPV 16 | IC | AOX1 | [185] | [160] | 46 | L1 | HPV 58 | IC | GAL10 | [114 | ||||||||
46 | Capsid protein | Norovirus | IC | ] | [90] | |||||||||||||||
AOX1 | [ | 186 | ] | [ | 161] | 47 | C69R variant of surface antigen | Hepatitis B virus | ||||||||||||
47 | L1 | IC | HPV 16 | ECGAL10/CYC1 | [115] | [91] | ||||||||||||||
PGK1 | [ | 187 | ] | [ | 162] | 48 | VP1 | Human polyomavirus 2 | IC | GAL | [116 | |||||||||
48 | Core protein | Hepatitis B virus | ] | [92] | ||||||||||||||||
[ | 188 | ] | [ | 163 | ] | 49 | VP2 | Parvovirus B19 | IC | GAL1 | [117] | [93 | ||||||||
49 | ] | |||||||||||||||||||
VP1 | Calicivirus virus | EC | AOX1 | [ | 189] | [164] | 50 | L1 | HPV 11 | IC | GAL110-11 | [118] | [94] | |||||||
50 | Core protein | Hepatitis C virus | IC | AOX1 | [190,191,192,193] | [165][166][167][168] | 51 | VP1 with pre-S1 region of the Hepatitis B virus | Hamster polyomavirus | IC | GAL | [119] | [95] | |||||||
52 | Surface antigen | Hepatitis B virus | IC | GAL10 | [120] | [96] | ||||||||||||||
53 | L1 | HPV 16 | IC | [121] | [97] |