Mediterranean Coastal Lagoons

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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/jmse10030347

fishing pollution transparency eutrophication Mediterranean basin

1. Introduction

Coastal lagoons are shallow bodies of water, close to the sea, generally separated from it by a sandy bar that has produced the closure of an ancient marine gulf. They are mostly the result of the accumulation of sands and gravels of continental origin that are dragged to the coast by a river and whose accumulation is also due to the action of persistent currents. A continuous input of materials is necessary for the accumulation to occur, as well as the beach current favoring deposition in shallow areas, gulfs and inlets where there is also no major river current ^[1]. The balance between the contributions from its basin and its vicinity, the strength of the contributions from the interior and the accumulation by the sea are the three factors necessary for a lagoon’s formation (Figure 1). Their presence is abundant on the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, in the Baltic Sea and in some areas of the Atlantic (France, Portugal, Morocco, Brazil, Uruguay).

Figure 1. Ideal coastal lagoon formation scheme. Base figure: Google Earth.

About seven million years ago, the movement of the tectonic plates closed the Rifian and Betic corridors (previous to the actual Gibraltar strait), so that the transfer of water was severely affected and what is known as the Miocene saline crisis occurred, with the closure of the Mediterranean Sea ^[2]. The sea was left as an inland sea isolated from the Atlantic and fed only by the fluvial waters of its rivers. This resulted in a drop in sea level of hundreds of meters due to evaporation and direct communication between Africa and Europe through the southern Iberian and Italian peninsula. About five million years ago, the communication with the Atlantic Ocean was opened again through the current Gibraltar corridor, and once the same water level was recovered in the two seas, the formation of the coastline began, following the approximately present line.

Therefore, the geological origin of the current coastal lagoons is recent, a few thousand years old for the most part, and they are the result of coastal dynamics. Moreover, as with many lakes, they are ephemeral formations as they are created in a few thousand years and also disappear either by siltation of the sediments that reach them or by disappearance of the sandy bar by marine erosion ^[3]. All the Mediterranean coastal lagoons are from the most recent Holocene period, and other sub-current lagoons are known, such as the Elx lagoon in Spain, located about 15 km from the coast, which is a remnant of the ancient Mediterranean coast prior to the Miocene saline crisis ^[4].

The Mediterranean coastal zones exemplify the conflict between the human exploitation of water resources and the ecological needs of aquatic ecosystems ^[5]. The close relationship of lagoons with terrestrial ecosystem boundaries makes these environments very vulnerable to hydrological modifications (freshwater diversions or drainage discharges), water pollution and habitat loss ^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9], which deeply change the structure of the lagoons’ ecological dynamics ^[10].

Coastal lagoons are a habitat declared as a priority by the European Union in the Habitats Directive, i.e., they are threatened with extinction ^[11]. This directive includes as coastal lagoons, in addition to those described as a typical lagoon formation, coastal evaporation salt marshes, which are also frequent on the shores of the Mediterranean. However, a hydrological distinction must be made between a coastal lagoon open to the sea and an estuary, considered as a tidal floodplain. This means that, for the purposes of the Directive, the classification of similar formations as coastal lagoons or estuaries will depend on the strength of the fluvial inputs that flow into the body of water and the influence of the tide on water renewal. This detail means that lagoons are very common in the Mediterranean due to weak tides and rivers with few contributions, while in the Atlantic the tides are higher and the rivers tend to have more contributions ^[12].

Therefore, coastal lagoons are bodies of water with scarce renewal due to low freshwater inputs and reduced communication with the sea. Their salinity is usually lower than the main sea when freshwater inputs are high and their volume is low; but this can change abruptly due to the influence of marine storms that overtake the dune bar and flood a lagoon with seawater. However, they can also be hypersaline when there is no freshwater input and the entry of seawater increases salinity by evaporation. In this sense, it can be said that they will have a positive estuarine circulation in the first case (fresh water flows out) or a negative estuary (marine water enters); they are not estuaries in any case (Figure 2) ^[13].

Figure 2. Water circulation models: (a) in high freshwater inflow; (b) in low inflow, with seawater entrance and high salinity lagoons.

2. Mediterranean Coastal Lagoons: Sites to Visit before Disappearance

The geographic search provided a list of thirty-seven water bodies of the minimum dimensions considered as coastal lagoons, which are listed in Table 1. Twenty-two lagoons are located on the European continent, eight on the African continent and four are in Asia, specifically in the Sinai and Anatolian Peninsulas. With regards to marine sub-basins, eight are located in the Lion Gulf, two in the Balearic Sea, three in the Alboran Sea, three in the Sicily Sea, two in the Gabès Gulf, four in the Levantine Sea, two in the Black Sea, one in the Marmara Sea, one in Aegean Sea, two in the Ionian Sea, seven in the Adriatic Sea and two in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Location of Mediterranean Sea basins and coastal lagoons, indicating their numerical code according to Table 1. Base map source: GlobeView (https://globeview.nepia.com/, accessed on 15 January 2022).

Table 1. Location of the main coastal lagoons of the Mediterranean Sea Basin, indicating their name, numerical code (N) in Figure 3, country where they are located, sub-basin to which they belong (Sea), latitude (Lat), longitude (Long) in decimal degrees, perimeter in km, surface area in km², maximum depth (Depth) in m and width of the opening to the sea (Open) in m.

Name	N	Country	Sea Basin	Lat.	Long.	Perim.	Area	Depth	Open
Berre	1	France	Lion gulf	43.47	5.10	67.75	160.03	9	105
Vaccares-Monro	2	France	Lion gulf	43.54	4.58	56.91	134.62	2	59
Or	3	France	Lion gulf	43.58	4.03	29.05	36.43	4	114
Perols-Vic	4	France	Lion gulf	43.49	3.83	37.85	33.49	3	124
Thau	5	France	Lion gulf	43.40	3.61	48.67	70.91	10	65
Bages-Sigean	6	France	Lion gulf	43.08	3.01	43.39	57.86	2	111
Leucate	7	France	Lion gulf	42.85	3.00	41.64	56.76	4	20
Saint Nazaire	8	France	Lion gulf	42.84	2.99	14.60	10.04	5	91
Clot	9	Spain	Balearic	40.65	0.66	17.13	8.63	1	46
Albufera	10	Spain	Balearic	39.34	−0.35	25.99	27.09	1	101
La Mata-Torrevieja	11	Spain	Alboran	38.01	−0.72	35.48	30.51	3	13
Mar Menor	12	Spain	Alboran	37.73	−0.79	52.67	136.90	8	186
Marchica	13	Morocco	Alboran	35.16	−2.85	57.65	116.61	5	300
Bizerte	14	Tunisia	Sicily	37.19	9.86	52.02	128.82	8	232
Ghar el Melh	15	Tunisia	Sicily	37.15	10.18	25.24	36.39	2	74
Tunis	16	Tunisia	Sicily	36.82	10.25	48.99	68.54	1	291
Boughrara	17	Tunisia	Gabès gulf	33.60	10.80	138.14	536.13	16	2202
El Bibane	18	Tunisia	Gabès gulf	33.25	11.25	76.65	232.97	5	914
Burullus	19	Egypt	Levantine	30.89	31.48	124.63	512.98	2	80
Manzala	20	Egypt	Levantine	31.31	31.99	172.46	837.98	1	280
Bardawil	21	Egypt	Levantine	31.15	33.20	224.43	626.30	5	578
Akyatan	22	Turkey	Levantine	36.63	35.26	47.43	86.66	1	180
Karine	23	Turkey	Aegean	37.59	27.18	30.88	34.58	1	680
Balik	24	Turkey	Black	41.58	36.08	25.77	24.07	2	185
Razim-Sinoie	25	Romania	Black	44.80	29.00	223.72	1291.86	4	40
Kucukcekmece	26	Turkey	Marmara	41.01	28.75	24.63	15.22	20	25
Amvrakikos	27	Greece	Ionian	38.99	20.92	168.26	551.95	58	590
Nartes	28	Albania	Adriatic	40.54	19.43	33.51	55.40	1	60
Karavasta	29	Albania	Adriatic	40.93	19.49	50.79	82.48	1	100
Marano-Grado	30	Italy	Adriatic	45.74	13.20	80.11	160.96	6	1788
Venice	31	Italy	Adriatic	45.40	12.30	148.20	563.69	22	1730
Comacchio	32	Italy	Adriatic	44.60	12.18	51.79	147.53	2	48
Lesina	33	Italy	Adriatic	41.88	15.45	52.23	51.01	3	27
Varano	34	Italy	Adriatic	41.88	15.74	34.97	65.52	1	56
Mare Piccolo	35	Italy	Ionian	40.48	17.28	25.17	21.20	13	142
Orbetello	36	Italy	Tyrrhenian	42.45	11.21	42.64	33.47	1	70
Cabras	37	Italy	Tyrrhenian	39.94	8.48	33.75	23.66	2	204

In six cases, the lagoonal water body is geographically divided into two lagoons very close to each other, so that for the purposes of this entry it is considered as one water body with two lagoons, each with its own name. This is the case, for example, of the Vaccarès and Monro lagoons (number 2) in France ^[14] or the Marano and Grado lagoons (number 30) in Italy ^[15].

Most lagoons are related to the presence of a deltaic river formation, such as the deltas of the Rhone, Ebro, Jucar, Segura, Moulouya, Nile, Danube and Po rivers. Some other lagoons have their origin in the movement of sands by marine currents, with the origin of materials from other places, such as the lagoons of Tunisia and those of Italy, whose formation is due to coastal morphology, without the presence of a river with deltaic formation. Figure 3 shows the location of the studied lagoons on the Mediterranean coast.

As for their characteristics, the coastal lagoons are mostly shallow, with maximum depths of up to ten meters, except those where the connection with the sea is open and are used for navigation, so they have up to 58 m as the deepest value ^[16] in the case of the Gulf of Amvrakikos (number 27). The maximum extension is presented in the Razim-Sinoie lagoon (number 25), located in the Danube delta ^[17], with an area of 1292 km². However, the longest is the Bardawil lagoon (number 21) located in the Nile delta ^[18], with 33.2 km on its longest axis.

The bibliographic review has shown that the most studied are the Venice lagoon ^[19] (more than 1800 publications) and the Mar Menor (about 300) ^[20]. At a lower level, the lagoons of Thau, Leucate, Bizerte, Tunis, Marano-Grado and Orbetello already have between 300 and 100 publications (Figure 4a) ^[15]^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25].

Figure 4. (a) Number of scientific publications indexed on each of the Mediterranean coastal lagoons. (b) Scope of the recent papers from 2016 to 2021 published in each lagoon.

Of the most recent published papers, the main topics are related to hydrology, pollution and water quality (Figure 4b), while the remaining third of the publications are related to plankton, fish, sediment and benthos, economic activities and paleoecology.

Regarding the trophic state, the results obtained (Table A1) indicate that the lagoons are generally in a poor trophic state (Figure 5). From the chlorophyll a content, applying the trophic state ranges defined by Carlson and Havens ^[26], eight lagoons are eutrophic (chlorophyll concentration between 8 and 25 µg/L) and 13 exceed this value, being classified as hypertrophic. Ten of them are mesotrophic and only six are in a good trophic state, with a chlorophyll a value of less than 2 µg/L: Berre (France), Mar Menor in Spain, Marchica (Morocco), Amvrakikos in Greece and Varano and Mare Piccolo in Italy. These are characterized by a good openness to the sea (except Varano). One might think that those lagoons with good communication with the sea are in a better condition than those with more limited communication, but it is clear that the pressures of the environment are more important ^[6]^[13].

Figure 5. Trophic status of coastal lagoons assessed by chlorophyll a concentration in summer 2020. Chlorophyll a concentration (CHL) in mg/m³ and TSM concentration in mg/L.

There is a significant statistical correlation between water transparency, measured as coefficient kd_z90max, and CHL and TSM concentration, in both cases p < 0.001, but the coefficient of determination is much higher for CHL than for TSM. High transparency values of water are correlated with low values of phytoplankton and suspended matter in the water (which can be biological or inert material). Figure 6 shows the distribution of the values of both variables.

Figure 6. Representation of water transparency values (kd_z90max) versus chlorophyll a concentration in mg/m³ (CHL) and suspended matter in mg/L (TSM). For each variable, the trend line, the adjust equation and its coefficient of determination are represented.

Ecologically, their importance lies in the fact that they are fluctuating environments, where aquatic vegetation of interest such as Ruppietea maritimae, Potametea, Zosteretea or Charetea associations develop ^[27]. The variation in salinity favors the presence of certain catadromous species of fish, so the use of these bodies of water for fishing by humans is historical. It is curious that the fishing systems used in the Mediterranean are similar in both Europe and Africa, performing set-ups with palisades and fixed nets that lead to the displacement of fish to the point where they are caught by the capture and extraction nets. From the aerial images it can be seen that in all locations the set-up is similar (Figure 7). It has been shown from research that the fishing system is of Phoenician origin, and that is why it has been widespread throughout the Mediterranean for more than 2000 years. However, for Steinberg ^[28], the system was already in use about 4500 years ago in Denmark (Figure 7d).

Figure 7. Current fishing set-up systems used in Mesopotamia in various coastal lagoons: (a) Redolín in Albufera de Valencia (Spain) March 2020. (b) Charfia in El Bibane (Tunisia). (c) Encañizada in Mar Menor (Spain) March 2017 (Archive of Murcia County Government). (d) Reconstruction of a fish hedge from Oleslyst, Denmark, about 4500 years old, sketch traced by J.S. ^[28].

Beyond the environmental value of these treats, the cultural and scenic value of the coastal lagoons is recognized by the citizens of the surrounding area ^[29]. First of all, by the fishing exploitation of local communities since historical times ^[10]^[30], and also the scenery of the water from the shore, in conjunction with the visualization of the environment, makes it highly appreciated, not only for the richness in species, but also for the visualization of the sunrise or sunset. In many lagoons there are a large number of landscapes related to this spiritual appreciation (Figure 8). Table A2 in the annex presents a list of the existing environmental protection figures as well as the tourist values that are of cultural interest.

Figure 8. Sunset in some lagoons: (a) Bardawil, (b) Venice, (c) Razim-Sinoie. Source: Google Photos.

Appendix A

Table A1. Variables obtained by studying Sentinel-2 imagery in summer 2020. CHL-a, chlorophyll a (mg/m³); TSM, total suspended matter (mg/L); Kd_z90max, water transparency measured as depth at which 10% of incident light reaches the surface (m). Highlighted in green, lagoons in better ecological status; in orange, lagoons in worse ecological status.

Name	Number	Country	Sea	CHL-a	TSM	Kd_z90max
Berre	1	France	Lion gulf	1.91	3.88	4.01
Vaccares-Monro	2	France	Lion gulf	6.65	13.60	1.19
Or	3	France	Lion gulf	10.71	15.33	0.90
Perols-Vic	4	France	Lion gulf	25.02	18.12	0.86
Thau	5	France	Lion gulf	3.82	1.71	4.28
Bages-Sigean	6	France	Lion gulf	6.83	5.79	2.61
Leucate	7	France	Lion gulf	11.93	4.12	2.54
Saint Nazaire	8	France	Lion gulf	6.16	3.72	2.53
Clot	9	Spain	Balearic	15.86	24.83	0.61
Albufera	10	Spain	Balearic	48.64	31.31	0.39
La Mata-Torrevieja	11	Spain	Alboran	26.52	63.83	0.31
Mar Menor	12	Spain	Alboran	0.85	1.70	6.50
Marchica	13	Morocco	Alboran	1.65	3.24	3.92
Bizerte	14	Tunisia	Sicily	3.60	4.23	3.44
Ghar el Mehl	15	Tunisia	Sicily	29.40	9.80	1.00
Tunis	16	Tunisia	Sicily	27.88	15.61	0.74
Boughrara	17	Tunisia	Gabès gulf	3.37	4.36	2.76
El Bibane	18	Tunisia	Gabès gulf	4.17	2.28	4.48
Burullus	19	Egypt	Levantine	29.43	30.54	0.45
Manzala	20	Egypt	Levantine	32.45	20.21	0.55
Bardawil	21	Egypt	Levantine	38.58	58.80	0.31
Akyatan	22	Turkey	Levantine	5.32	4.66	3.01
Karine	23	Turkey	Aegean	7.43	4.34	2.04
Balik	24	Turkey	Black	18.49	11.62	1.16
Razim-Sinoie	25	Romania	Black	27.62	28.19	0.60
Kucukcekmece	26	Turkey	Marmara	29.53	9.89	0.70
Amvrakikos	27	Greece	Ionian	1.01	1.92	5.33
Nartes	28	Albania	Adriatic	29.26	20.08	0.52
Karavasta	29	Albania	Adriatic	19.99	13.87	0.81
Marano-Grado	30	Italy	Adriatic	17.81	11.31	1.03
Venice	31	Italy	Adriatic	5.70	0.98	5.73
Comacchio	32	Italy	Adriatic	77.69	66.84	0.26
Lesina	33	Italy	Adriatic	34.75	6.53	0.84
Varano	34	Italy	Adriatic	1.93	4.02	2.86
Mare Piccolo	35	Italy	Ionian	0.87	1.98	5.55
Orbetello	36	Italy	Tyrrhenian	18.61	10.48	1.13
Cabras	37	Italy	Tyrrhenian	49.22	24.80	0.41

Table A2. Aspects of interest in the studied lagoons related to biodiversity, tourist interest, gastronomy and protection figures.

Country	Name	Sea	Biodiversity	Tourism Interest	Gastronomy	Protection
France	Vaccares-Monro	Lion gulf	There are 65% unique species in the area (flora and fauna)	City of Marseille, medieval towns and Avignon	Vineyards, wines of Luberon, olive oil, lavender oil, and cheeses	Ramsar site. Natura 2000. Department of Bouches-du-Rhone. Provence natural parks.
	Le Berre
	Thau
	Pérols-Vic		Montpellier was chosen as the capital of French biodiversity	City of Montpellier, the folies (ancient palaces), the region of Languedoc-Rousillion	Wines, seafood and bull meat	Ramsar site. Natura 2000. Green Net (2007) which cares about studies of environmental impact.
	L’Or				Wines, seafood and bull meat
	Leucate		In this county, there is one of the largest natural reserve of France.	Beaches, lagoons, vineyards	Seafood and steakhouses	Ramsar site. Natura 2000.
	Bages-Sigean
	Saint Nazaire
Spain	Clot	Balearic	Habitat of 280 species of birds	Cities of Tarragona and Valencia, medieval towns, beaches	Seafood, paella, duck rice, “l’espardenyà”	Ramsar site. Natura 2000. Natural parks.
	Albufera	Balearic	Habitat of 280 species of birds	Cities of Tarragona and Valencia, medieval towns, beaches	Seafood, paella, duck rice, “l’espardenyà”	Ramsar site. Natura 2000. Natural parks.
	La Mata-Torrevieja	Alboran	Rich zone of biodiversity of marine and terrestrial species. Some are endemic and of great biological interest.	Cities of Alacant and Murcia, some popular towns, beaches	Michelin restaurants, seafood, mojama	Ramsar site. Natura 2000. Natural parks.
	Mar Menor	Alboran		Cities of Alacant and Murcia, some popular towns, beaches	Michelin restaurants, seafood, mojama	Ramsar site. Natura 2000. Natural parks.
Morocco	Marchica	Alboran	Flamingo bay, birds shelter	Resorts, golf course, cities of Nador and Melilla	Tajine, couscous, Khubz bread, hummus	Ramsar site. Institut National de Recherche Halieutique-Centre de Nador (University of Mohammed V)
Tunisia	Bizerte	Sicily	Ichkeul Natural Park (nature reserved named World Heritage by UNESO).	Qsiba, Ichkeul National Park, Utica, ottoman fortresses	Seafood, chakchouka, couscous, jelbana, kefteji	Ramsar site. National Tourism Organization
	Ghar el Mehl
	Tunis
	Boughrara	Gabès gulf
	El Bibane
	Manzala
	Bardawil
Egypt	Burullus	Levantine	135 endemic plants, dunes, natural reserves	Cities of El Cairo and Alexandria	Ful Medames, Koshari, Baba Ganoush, Fatteh, Kofta, falafel	Ramsar site.
	Manzala
	Bardawil
Turkey	Akyatan	Levantine	Important Bird Area	Adana, Mersin, ottoman castles	Ayran, Raki, Kahve, baklava, Turkish delicacies	Ramsar site. Natural Park
	Karine	Aegean	Aquatic birds	Buyuk delta
	Balik	Black	Birds, velvet duck	Estambul, Ankara
	Kucukcekmece	Ionian	Birds, velvet duck	Estambul, Ankara
Romania	Razim-Sinoie	Black	Birds and fishes	Museum of Ebisala, Istria, Aerganum fortresses, Sarichioi and Jurilovca towns	Ciorba de burta, Zacusca, Mici, sarmale	Ramsar site. World heritage site. UNESCO Biosphere Reserve
Greece	Amvrakikos	Ionian	Marshes, endemic flora and bids fauna	Arta, byzantine fortresses, island of Koronisia	Moussaka, tzatziki, gyros, fava	Ramsar site. Natura 2000.
Albania	Karavasta	Adriatic	Birds protection	Byzantine art	Fish and eels	Ramsar site. National Park.
Albania	Nartes	Adriatic	Birds protection	Byzantine art	Fish and eels	Ramsar site. National Park.
Italy	Marano-Grado	Adriatic	High biodiversity and there are a lot of marine regions protected. Endemic Flora. Fauna there are swans, dophins, friar seal or flamingos	Venice, Murano, Bolonia, Ferrera, Verona. Cultural heritage.	Pasta, pizza, wine, tiramisu, risotto, carpaccio, calzone	Natura 2000. Ramsar site.Protected by the statal government and UNESCO
	Venice
	Comacchio
	Lesina
	Varano
	Mare Piccolo	Ionian		Tarento, churches
	Orbetello	Tyrrhenian		Toscana, Porto Ercole and Porto Santo Stefano
	Cabras	Sardinia	Historic place		Sardinia island

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Juan Soria

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1. Introduction

2. Mediterranean Coastal Lagoons: Sites to Visit before Disappearance

References