Summary

Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment. Today, it provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. Environmental studies are incorporating more of the social sciences in order to understand human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment. This entry collection features information about design and technology for improving environmental quality in every aspect.

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Topic Review
Recent Advances in the Development of Fire-Resistant Biocomposites
Biocomposites reinforced with natural fibers represent an eco-friendly and inexpensive alternative to conventional petroleum-based materials and have been increasingly utilized in a wide variety of industrial applications due to their numerous advantages, such as their good mechanical properties, low production costs, renewability, and biodegradability. However, these engineered composite materials have inherent downsides, such as their increased flammability when subjected to heat flux or flame initiators, which can limit their range of applications. As a result, certain attempts are still being made to reduce the flammability of biocomposites. The combustion of biobased composites can potentially create life-threatening conditions in buildings, resulting in substantial human and material losses. Additives known as flame-retardants (FRs) have been commonly used to improve the fire protection of wood and biocomposite materials, textiles, and other fields for the purpose of widening their application areas. At present, this practice is very common in the construction sector due to stringent fire safety regulations on residential and public buildings. 
  • 629
  • 28 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Strengthening Collaborative Food Waste Prevention in Peru
Inefficient management and handling of organic waste generated by the food service sector is a big global challenge. In addition to the negative environmental impacts of food waste, the effect of the amount of food that is wasted when it is not handled properly is even more alarming. 
  • 679
  • 28 Jan 2022
Topic Review
The Seed and the Metabolism Regulation
Seeds are the reproductive units of higher plants. They have a significant place in agriculture and plant diversity maintenance. Because they are dehydrated, they can remain viable in the environment for centuries. The dry seed is a metabolically inactive organism, but well organized to protect its components and enter intensive repair to restore metabolic activities upon imbibition for the completion of germination. 
  • 1.4K
  • 28 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Recent Advances in Membrane Distillation Module Configurations
Membrane Distillation (MD) is a membrane-based, temperature-driven water reclamation process. While research emphasis has been largely on membrane design, upscaling of MD has prompted advancements in energy-efficient module design and configurations. Apart from the four conventional configurations, researchers have come up with novel MD membrane module designs and configurations to improve thermal efficiency. While membrane design has been the focus of many studies, development of appropriate system configurations for optimal energy efficiency for each application has received considerable attention, and is a critical aspect in advancing MD configurations. This review assesses advancements in modified and novel MD configurations design with emphasis on the effects of upscaling and pilot scale studies. Improved MD configurations discussed in this review are the material gap MD, conductive gap MD, permeate gap MD, vacuum-enhanced AGMD/DCMD, submerged MD, flashed-feed MD, dead-end MD, and vacuum-enhanced multi-effect MD. All of these modified MD configurations are designed either to reduce the heat loss by mitigating the temperature polarization or to improve the mass transfer and permeate flux. Vacuum-enhanced MD processes and MD process with non-contact feed solution show promise at the lab-scale and must be further investigated. Hollow fiber membrane-based pilot scale modules have not yet been sufficiently explored. In addition, comparison of various configurations is prevented by a lack of standardized testing conditions. We also reflect on recent pilot scale studies, ongoing hurdles in commercialization, niche applications and energy efficiency of the MD process.
  • 765
  • 28 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Diagnosis of Plant Virus Diseases
Among the plant pathogens, viruses (and viroids), which are transmitted by a living organism called a vector, are the major infectious agents that cause plant disease. Once a plant virus infects a susceptible host, it can spread to another plant by means of vector-mediated transmission (horizontally) or from parents to offspring (vertically). Since accurate diagnosis methods are of pivotal importance for viral diseases control, the current and emerging technologies for the detection of these plant pathogens are described.
  • 2.4K
  • 27 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Supply Chain Concentration and Corporate Environmental Responsibility
With the recent intensification of environmental problems such as the depletion of natural resources, air pollution, water pollution and shortage, and soil erosion, the balance between environmental protection and economic development has attracted worldwide attention, and both green economy and sustainable development have gradually become the future economic development directions of all countries in the world. The COVID-19 virus spread throughout the world since its discovery in late 2019. Many experts show that poor ecological environment is an important factor that affects the generation and spread of virus and the increasing mortality rates, hence stressing the importance and urgency of environmental protection. As micro-entities of national economic operation, enterprises are also subjects of natural resource consumption and ecological pollution and have an undeniable responsibility toward environmental protection. Improving the ecological environment should ultimately be integrated into the corporate environmental responsibility (CER) of firms.
  • 600
  • 27 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Environmental Contaminants and Disparities in Women's Health
Environmental contaminants generally fall into three categories: persistent organic pollutants (POPs), endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), and heavy metals.
  • 737
  • 27 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Heavy Metal Toxicity and Sequestration in Plants
Heavy metal (HM) toxicity has become a global concern in recent years and is imposing a severe threat to the environment and human health. In the case of plants, a higher concentration of HMs, above a threshold, adversely affects cellular metabolism because of the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which target the key biological molecules. Moreover, some of the HMs such as mercury and arsenic, among others, can directly alter the protein/enzyme activities by targeting their –SH group to further impede the cellular metabolism. Particularly, inhibition of photosynthesis has been reported under HM toxicity because HMs trigger the degradation of chlorophyll molecules by enhancing the chlorophyllase activity and by replacing the central Mg ion in the porphyrin ring which affects overall plant growth and yield. Consequently, plants utilize various strategies to mitigate the negative impact of HM toxicity by limiting the uptake of these HMs and their sequestration into the vacuoles with the help of various molecules including proteins such as phytochelatins, metallothionein, compatible solutes, and secondary metabolites.
  • 646
  • 28 Jan 2022
Topic Review
The Impact of Climate Change on Cholera
Water ecosystems can be rather sensitive to evolving or sudden changes in weather parameters. These changes can result in alterations in the natural habitat of pathogens, vectors, and human hosts, as well as in the transmission dynamics and geographic distribution of infectious agents. 
  • 552
  • 27 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Fukushima Flora
After the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant (FNPP) accident in March 2011 much attention was focused to the biological consequences of ionizing radiation and radionuclides released in the area surrounding the nuclear plant. This unexpected mishap led to the emission of radionuclides in aerosol and gaseous forms from the power plant, which contaminated a large area, including wild forest, cities, farmlands, mountains, and the sea, causing serious problems. Large quantities of 131I, 137Cs, and 134Cs were detected in the fallout. People were evacuated but the flora continued to be affected by the radiation exposure and by the radioactive dusts’ fallout. 
  • 434
  • 28 Jan 2022
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