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Topic Review
NKT Cells
Natural killer T (NKT) cells, a small population of T cells, are capable of influencing a wide range of the immune cells, including T cells, B cells, dendritic cells and macrophages. NKT cells can influence the status of the innate and adaptive immune systems because they secrete huge amounts of Th1 and Th2 cytokines. Earlier, the NKT cells were characterized by the NK and T cell properties as they express the natural killer (NK) cell lineage markers and αβ T-cell receptor (TCR). NKT cells are more appropriately defined as “CD1d-restricted and TCR-αβ positive T cells”. In mice, the NKT cells constitute about 0.2–2.0% of lymphocytes in the blood, spleen, bone marrow and thymus, and about 15–35% of total lymphocytes in the liver. On the other hand, the levels of NKT cells are lower in humans, comprising about 0.04–1.3% of circulating lymphocytes in the blood, spleen and bone marrow. They make up about 0.001–0.01% of lymphocytes in the thymus and about 1% in the liver. The greater part of the NKT cells, called canonical or invariant NKT cells (iNKT cells) or type I NKT cells have a specific TCR α-chain rearrangement (Vα14-Jα18 in mice; Vα24-Jα18 in humans), associated with limited diverse Vβ chains. Type II NKT cells, also called non-classical NKT cells, are more diverse in TCR α-chain (but some Vα3.2-Jα9, Vα8 in mice) and TCR-β chains (but some Vβ8.2 in mice).
  • 1.2K
  • 13 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Cyclops (Genus)
Cyclops is one of the most common genera of freshwater copepods, comprising over 400 species. Together with other similar-sized non-copepod fresh-water crustaceans, especially cladocera, they are commonly called water fleas. The name Cyclops comes from the Cyclops of Greek mythology which shares the quality of having a single large eye, which may be either red or black in Cyclops.
  • 1.2K
  • 14 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Götz Prosthesis Reconstructions
In this entry, the 3D CAD reconstructions and 3D multi-material polymer replica printings of knight Götz von Berlichingen´s first "Iron Hand", which were developed in the last few years at Offenburg University, are presented. Even by today's standards, the first “Iron Hand”–as could be shown in the replicas–demonstrates sophisticated mechanics and well thought-out functionality and still offers inspiration and food for discussion when it comes to the question of an artificial prosthetic replacement for a hand. 
  • 1.2K
  • 14 Jan 2021
Topic Review
FGF/FGFR Pathway in GIST
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) are rare neoplasms of mesenchymal origin arising in the gastrointestinal tract. The vast majority are characterized by mutually-exclusive activating mutations in KIT or Platelet-derived growth factor alpha (PDGFRA) receptors, or less frequently by succinate dehydrogenase complex (SDH) or NF1 inactivation, with very rare cases harboring mutant BRAF or RAS alleles. Approximately 5% of GISTs lack any of such mutations and are called quadruple wild-type (WT) GISTs. Recently, Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF)/FGF-receptor (FGFR) signaling emerged as an activated pathway in different molecular subgroups of GISTs due to activating mutations, oncogenic gene fusions, or autocrine/paracrine signaling.
  • 1.2K
  • 30 Oct 2020
Topic Review
Artemisia Argentea
Artemisia /ˌɑːrtɪˈmiːziə/ is a large, diverse genus of plants with between 200 and 400 species belonging to the daisy family Asteraceae. Common names for various species in the genus include mugwort, wormwood, and sagebrush. Artemisia comprises hardy herbaceous plants and shrubs, which are known for the powerful chemical constituents in their essential oils. Artemisia species grow in temperate climates of both hemispheres, usually in dry or semiarid habitats. Notable species include A. vulgaris (common mugwort), A. tridentata (big sagebrush), A. annua (sagewort), A. absinthium (wormwood), A. dracunculus (tarragon), and A. abrotanum (southernwood). The leaves of many species are covered with white hairs. Most species have strong aromas and bitter tastes from terpenoids and sesquiterpene lactones, which discourage herbivory, and may have had a selective advantage. The small flowers are wind-pollinated. Artemisia species are used as food plants by the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species. Some botanists split the genus into several genera, but DNA analysis does not support the maintenance of the genera Crossostephium, Filifolium, Neopallasia, Seriphidium, and Sphaeromeria; three other segregate genera -- Stilnolepis, Elachanthemum, and Kaschgaria -- are maintained by this evidence. Occasionally, some of the species are called sages, causing confusion with the Salvia sages in the family Lamiaceae.
  • 1.2K
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Tannins
There are diverse challenges in the poultry production industry that decrease the productivity and efficiency of poultry production, impair animal welfare, and pose issues to public health. Furthermore, the use of antibiotic growth promoters (AGP) in feed, which have been used to improve the growth performance and gut health of chickens, has been restricted in many countries. Tannins, polyphenolic compounds that precipitate proteins, are considered as alternatives for AGP in feed and provide solutions to mitigate challenges in poultry production due to their antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and gut health promoting effects. However, because high dosages of tannins have antinutritional effects when fed to poultry, determining appropriate dosages of supplemental tannins is critical for their potential implementation as a solution for the challenges faced in poultry production.
  • 1.2K
  • 11 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Metformin
Metformin is a metabolic modulator widely used to treat type II diabetes and metabolic syndrome patients. It shows a safe profile and its use in additional indications, such as cancer, is an important matter of investigation.
  • 1.2K
  • 09 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Bartha K61 Strain
Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is a member of the alphaherpesvirus subfamily of the herpesviruses and is the causative agent of Aujeszky’s disease in pigs, causing respiratory, neurological, and reproductive symptoms. Given the heavy economic losses associated with Aujeszky’s disease epidemics, great efforts were made to develop efficacious vaccines. One of the best modified live vaccines to this day is the attenuated Bartha K61 strain. The use of this vaccine in extensive vaccination programs worldwide has assisted considerably in the eradication of PRV from the domesticated pig population in numerous countries. The Bartha K61 strain was described in 1961 by Adorján Bartha in Budapest and was obtained by serial passaging in different cell cultures. Ever since, it has been intensively studied by several research groups, for example, to explore its efficacy as a vaccine strain, to molecularly and mechanistically explain its attenuation, and to use it as a retrograde neuronal tracer and as a vector vaccine. Given that the Bartha K61 vaccine strain celebrates its 60th birthday in 2021 with no sign of retirement, this review provides a short summary of the knowledge on its origin, characteristics, and use as a molecular tool and as a vaccine.
  • 1.2K
  • 17 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Metabolomics
Metabolomics is the latest trend in the “-omics” sciences, of which technologies are widely used today in all life sciences. Metabolomics gave impetus to the description of biochemical processes that occur in many organisms by means of measuring of low molecular compounds by high-throughout technologies, search for new biomarkers of disease, and laid the foundation for new clinical laboratory diagnostics. The purpose of this entry is to show how metabolomics is represented in the science and to demonstrate the successes and main achievements of scientists in this field.
  • 1.2K
  • 15 Feb 2021
Topic Review
Pseudohermaphroditism
Pseudohermaphroditism (also spelled pseudo-hermaphroditism) is an old clinical term for an organism that is born with primary sex characteristics of one sex but develops the secondary sex characteristics that are different from what would be expected on the basis of the gonadal tissue (ovary or testis). It can be contrasted with the term true hermaphroditism, which described a condition where testicular and ovarian tissue were present in the same individual. This language has fallen out of favor due to misconceptions and pejorative connotations associated with the terms, and also a shift to nomenclature based on genetics. The term male pseudo-hermaphrodite was used when a testis is present, and the term female pseudo-hermaphrodite was used when an ovary is present. In some cases, external sex organs associated with pseudohermaphroditism look intermediate between a typical clitoris and penis. In other cases, the external sex organs have an appearance that would be expected to be seen with the "opposite" gonadal tissue. Because of this, pseudohermaphroditism is sometimes not identified until puberty or adulthood. Associated conditions include 5-α-reductase deficiency and androgen insensitivity syndrome.
  • 1.2K
  • 16 Nov 2022
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