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Topic Review
Spousal Privilege
In the common law, spousal privilege (also called marital privilege or husband-wife privilege) is a term used in the law of evidence to describe two separate privileges that apply to spouses: the spousal communications privilege and the spousal testimonial privilege. Both types of privilege are based on the policy of encouraging spousal harmony and preventing spouses from having to condemn, or be condemned by, their spouses: the spousal communications privilege or confidences privilege is a form of privileged communication that protects the contents of confidential communications between spouses during their marriage from testimonial disclosure, while spousal testimonial privilege (also called spousal incompetency and spousal immunity) protects the individual holding the privilege from being called to testify in proceedings relating to his/her spouse. However, the spousal privileges have their roots in the legal fiction that a husband and wife were one person.
  • 1.4K
  • 20 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Spread of Viruses on Universities Campuses
Outdoor open spaces are important for sustainable universities because they accommodate outdoor activities and enhance the campus’s livability and vitality. The character of the outdoor space determines the quality of the campus.
  • 513
  • 07 Jun 2022
Topic Review
State Within a State
A state within a state or a deep state is a political situation in a country when an internal organ, such as the armed forces or public authorities (intelligence agencies, police, secret police, administrative agencies, and branches of government bureaucracy), does not respond to the civilian political leadership. Although the state within a state can be conspiratorial in nature, the deep state can also take the form of entrenched unelected career civil servants acting in a non-conspiratorial manner, to further their own interests (e.g. continuity of the state as distinct from the administration, job security, enhanced power and authority, pursuit of ideological goals and objectives, and the general growth of their agency) and in opposition to the policies of elected officials, by obstructing, resisting, and subverting the policies, conditions and directives of elected officials. The term, like many in politics, derives from the Greek language (κράτος εν κράτει, kratos en kratei, later adopted into Latin as imperium in imperio or status in statu). Sometimes the term refers to state companies that, though formally under the command of the government, act 'de facto' like private corporations. Sometimes the term refers to companies that, though formally private, act de facto like "states within a state". Political debate surrounding the separation of church and state previously revolved around the perception that if left unchecked the Church might turn into a kind of State within a State, an illegitimate outgrowth of the State's natural civil power. In the field of political science, this pop culture concept is studied within the literature on the state. Current literature on the state generally traces a lineage to Bringing the State Back In (1985) and remains an active body of scholarly research to this day. Within this literature, the state is understood as both venue (a set of rules under which others act and interact) as well as actor (with its own agenda). An example of a non-conspiratorial version of the 'state as actor' from the empirical scholarly literature would be "doing truth to power" (as a play on speaking truth to power, which is what journalists often aspire to do) as studied by Todd La Porte. Under this dual understanding, the conspiratorial version of the deep state concept would be one version of the 'state as actor' while the non-conspiratorial version would be another version of the 'state as venue.' The fundamental takeaway from the scholarly literature on the dual nature of the state is that the 'state as actor' (deep state) is a characteristic of all states which can have both good and bad effects and should not be seen as bad by default.
  • 5.6K
  • 10 Oct 2022
Topic Review
State-Dependent Memory
State-dependent memory or state-dependent learning is the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed. The term is often used to describe memory retrieval while in states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs – most commonly, alcohol, but has implications for mood or non-substance induced states of consciousness as well. Unlike context-dependent memory, which involves an individual's external environment and conditions, state-dependent memory applies to the individual's internal conditions. For example, while context-dependent memory might refer to the idea that taking a test in the same room that an individual studied in will make it easier to retrieve those memories, state-dependent learning refers to the idea that if an individual always studied for a test while slightly caffeinated, it will most likely be easiest to recall what they studied during the test if they are at a similar level of caffeination.
  • 7.1K
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Statistical Correlations of Criminal Behaviour
The statistical correlations of criminal behavior explore the associations of specific non-criminal factors with specific crimes. The field of criminology studies the dynamics of crime. Most of these studies use correlational data; that is, they attempt to identify various factors are associated with specific categories of criminal behavior. Such correlational studies led to hypotheses about the causes of these crimes. The Handbook of Crime Correlates (2009) is a systematic review of 5200 empirical studies on crime that have been published worldwide. A crime consistency score represents the strength of relationships. The scoring depends on how consistently a statistically significant relationship was identified across multiple studies. The authors claim that the review summarizes most of what is currently known about the variables associated with criminality. Writing in 2019, criminologist Greg Ridgeway argued that criminology was still trying to conclusively determine what causes crime.
  • 2.7K
  • 29 Nov 2022
Topic Review
STEAMComp Edu: STEAM Competence Framework for Educators
STEAM (science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics) education is gaining increasing attention worldwide, with many initiatives being implemented to promote its adoption and effectiveness; thus, its successful integration into educational systems has become increasingly critical. Educators will play a central role in this integration; that is why it is critical to assess their needs, map the necessary roles and competences, and provide the means to guide their professional development in a systematic way. To address these requirements, our study introduces the STEAM Competence Framework for Educators (STEAMComp Edu), as a culmination of literature reviews, expert consultations, and empirical validation by 302 educational professionals, policymakers, and scholars.
  • 2.5K
  • 26 Mar 2024
Topic Review
STEM Program
STEM (Science-Technology-Engineering-Mathematics) education has received great attention in recent years not only for promoting interest and learning in these areas but also for encouraging children and young people to pursue careers in them.
  • 582
  • 24 Apr 2022
Topic Review
STEM-Based Teaching in Learning
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education promotes innovation and creativity and provides learners with the opportunity to develop critical thinking, problem solving, and analytical skills, which are all essential for sustainable development. When these skills are applied to real-world situations, they can help to address social, economic, and environmental challenges. STEM education can foster new solutions and technologies that contribute to sustainable development. 
  • 261
  • 31 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Step-by-Step Model for Implementing Open Innovation
Open innovation has attracted wide interest since it first appeared in the 2003 book by Chesbrough. It proposed that companies combining internal and external ideas when innovating would benefit more than by adhering to the traditional research and development model. As many definitions have been proposed for this term since then, it appears that open innovation is not something stationary and is constantly evolving. At this time, the most prevalent definition seems to be that open innovation is the use of purposive inflows and outflows of knowledge to accelerate internal innovation, and expand the markets for external use of innovation, respectively. This means that firms wanting to advance their technology can and should use both internal and external ideas. Even though there are several definitions for open innovation, their common thread is the creation of relations and collaborations in order to create something new with the resources at hand. The differences in the definitions usually refer to different scopes concerning resources, the degree of openness, etc.
  • 391
  • 06 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Sterol Regulatory Element-binding Proteins
Sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c) is a key modulatory molecule involved in lipid homeostasis in the central nervous system. However, little is known about the biological effects of SREBP-1c in the brain. Our previous study uncovered that mice deficient in SREBP-1c exhibit schizophrenia-like behaviors. We analyzed the transcriptomes of the hippocampus of SREBP-1c knockout (KO) mice and wild-type mice in order to investigate whether there are novel molecular mechanisms involved in the neurological aberrations caused by SREBP-1c deficiency. This study found seven differentially expressed genes (three up-regulated and four down-regulated genes) in the hippocampus of SREBP-1c KO mice. For further verification, we selected the three most significantly changed genes: glucagon-like peptide 2 receptors (GLP2R) involved in hippocampal neurogenesis and neuroplasticity as well as in cognitive impairments; necdin (NDN) which is related to neuronal death and neurodevelopmental disorders; and Erb-B2 receptor tyrosine kinase 4 (ERBB4) which is a receptor for schizophrenia-linked protein, neuregulin-1. The protein levels of GLP2R and NDN were considerably decreased, but the level of ERBB4 was significantly increased in the hippocampus of SREBP-1c KO mice. We suggest that these data provide novel molecular evidence for the modulatory role of SREBP-1c in the mouse hippocampus.
  • 1.1K
  • 03 Nov 2020
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