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Topic Review
Spousal Privilege
In the common law, spousal privilege (also called marital privilege or husband-wife privilege) is a term used in the law of evidence to describe two separate privileges that apply to spouses: the spousal communications privilege and the spousal testimonial privilege. Both types of privilege are based on the policy of encouraging spousal harmony and preventing spouses from having to condemn, or be condemned by, their spouses: the spousal communications privilege or confidences privilege is a form of privileged communication that protects the contents of confidential communications between spouses during their marriage from testimonial disclosure, while spousal testimonial privilege (also called spousal incompetency and spousal immunity) protects the individual holding the privilege from being called to testify in proceedings relating to his/her spouse. However, the spousal privileges have their roots in the legal fiction that a husband and wife were one person.
  • 1.3K
  • 20 Oct 2022
Topic Review
VR/AR in K-12 Science Education
virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) are increasingly capturing educators’ and learners’ attention. In particular, VR is defined as a real-time graphical simulation in which the user interacts with the system via analog control, within a spatial frame of reference and with user control of the viewpoint’s motion and view direction. It first appeared in 1966 and was used in the design of US Air Force Flight Simulator. Developed from VR, AR is a technology used for improving users’ perception of the real world by dynamically adding virtual elements to the physical environment. It made its debut in the 1990s, which was initially proposed by scientists from Boeing, an aircraft manufacturer, where they mixed virtual graphics with real environment displays to help aircraft electricians assemble cables.
  • 1.3K
  • 08 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding, also known as nursing, is the feeding of babies and young children with milk from a woman's breast. Health professionals recommend that breastfeeding begin within the first hour of a baby's life and continue as often and as much as the baby wants. During the first few weeks of life babies may nurse roughly every two to three hours and the duration of a feeding is usually ten to fifteen minutes on each breast. Older children feed less often. Mothers may pump milk so that it can be used later when breastfeeding is not possible. Breastfeeding has a number of benefits to both mother and baby, which infant formula lacks. Deaths of an estimated 820,000 children under the age of five could be prevented globally every year with increased breastfeeding. Breastfeeding decreases the risk of respiratory tract infections and diarrhea, both in developing and developed countries. Other benefits include lower risks of asthma, food allergies, type 1 diabetes, and leukemia. Breastfeeding may also improve cognitive development and decrease the risk of obesity in adulthood. Mothers may feel pressure to breastfeed, but in the developed world children generally grow up normally when bottle fed. Benefits for the mother include less blood loss following delivery, better uterus shrinkage, and less postpartum depression. Breastfeeding delays the return of menstruation and fertility, a phenomenon known as lactational amenorrhea. Long term benefits for the mother include decreased risk of breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, and rheumatoid arthritis. Breastfeeding is less expensive than infant formula. Health organizations, including the World Health Organization (WHO), recommend breastfeeding exclusively for six months. This means that no other foods or drinks other than possibly vitamin D are typically given. After the introduction of foods at six months of age, recommendations include continued breastfeeding until one to two years of age or more. Globally about 38% of infants are only breastfed during their first six months of life. In the United States, about 75% of women begin breastfeeding and about 13% only breastfeed until the age of six months. Medical conditions that do not allow breastfeeding are rare. Mothers who take certain recreational drugs and medications should not breastfeed. Smoking, limited amounts of alcohol, or coffee are not reasons to avoid breastfeeding.
  • 1.3K
  • 11 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Command Responsibility
Command responsibility (also superior responsibility, the Yamashita standard, and the Medina standard) is the legal doctrine of hierarchical accountability for war crimes. The legal doctrine of command responsibility was codified in the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and is partly based upon the American Lieber Code, a manual of war for the Union forces, authorised by President A. Lincoln in 1863, two years into the course of the U.S. civil war. The legal doctrine of command responsibility was first applied by the German Supreme Court, in the Leipzig War Crimes Trials (1921), which included the trial of Imperial German Army officer Emil Müller for war crimes committed during the First World War (1914–1918). The Yamashita standard derived from the incorporation to the U.S. Code of the legal doctrine of command responsibility, as codified in the two Hague Conventions. That legal precedent, decided by the U.S. Supreme Court, allowed the U.S. prosecution of the war-crimes case against General Tomoyuki Yamashita, for the atrocities committed by his soldiers in the Philippine Islands, in the Pacific Theatre (1941–1945) of the Second World War. A U.S. military tribunal charged Yamashita with "unlawfully disregarding, and failing to discharge, his duty as a commander to control the acts of members of his command, by permitting them to commit war crimes." The Medina standard expanded the U.S. Code to include the criminal liability of U.S. military officers for the war crimes committed by their subordinates, as are military officers of an enemy power, e.g. the war-crimes trial of Gen. Yamashita in 1945. The Medina standard originated from the charging, prosecution, and court-martial of U.S. Army Captain Ernest Medina in 1971, for not exercising his superior responsibility as company commander, by not acting to halt the commission of a war crime by his soldiers — the My Lai Massacre (16 March 1968) during the Vietnam War (1945–1975).
  • 1.3K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Social Media
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder where people experience intrusive thoughts and must practice rituals to relieve their discomfort. More specifically, it would be better to refer to them as obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders characterized by continuous mental or behavioral activity that fills most of the people’s time, with the aim of neutralizing invasive mental content. All these activities are always “ego-dystonic”, that is, they are repugnant or inconsistent with the person’s values.
  • 1.3K
  • 29 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Climate Change affects Tourism Development
Tourism-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are a central driver of anthropogenic climate change. At the same time, climate change has both direct and indirect impacts on tourism, varying from damages of tourist assets due to extreme weather events, to losses of biodiversity.
  • 1.3K
  • 28 Apr 2021
Topic Review
EntreComp Questionnaire for Entrepreneurship Competencies
The European Entrepreneurship Competence Framework (EntreComp) offers a comprehensive description of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that people need to develop for an entrepreneurial mindset. Entrepreneurship competencies have usually been equated to management skills, but it is assumed that entrepreneurship activities cannot be narrowed to the management of business, since it requires a wider range of competencies. In particular, the European Council adopted the concept of entrepreneurship competencies as a set of abilities with the potential of shaping society through value creation at a social, cultural, or financial level with the sense of entrepreneurship as one of the eight key competencies necessary for a knowledge-based society.
  • 1.3K
  • 18 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Inclusive Green Growth
Inclusive Green Growth is a sustainable development mode that pursues the coordination of economic growth, ecological environment and social equity. It coordinates the contradictions and conflicts between man and nature and between man and man by changing and optimizing the mode of production. It is an important way and specific form to realize the coordinated development of the three systems of economy, society and nature. Inclusive Green Growth pursues fairness and efficiency, the internal consistency between development and environment, and is committed to achieving high-quality synchronous development of economy, society and ecology. Compared with Green Growth and Inclusive Growth, Inclusive Green Growth has richer theoretical connotation and practical value: the change of wealth system and development concept is its logical starting point; The coordinated reform of the socio-economic structure system based on the mode of production is the guarantee of its system; The overall coordination of growth and development is its prominent feature; Economic growth, inclusiveness and sharing, effective utilization and protection of ecological resources are its internal requirements; The equal participation and sharing of the whole people in the development process and development achievements is its value orientation. The comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development of the three systems of economy, society and nature is its goal and requirement.
  • 1.3K
  • 08 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Constitutive Role of Communication in Organizations
The focal point of the communicative constitution of organizations is that “organization is an effect of communication not its predecessor”. This approach, also referred to as the CCO perspective, posits that "elements of communication, rather than being fixed in advance, are reflexively constituted within the act of communication itself".
  • 1.3K
  • 08 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Bike-Sharing Systems
The idea behind Bike-Sharing Systems (BSS) is simple: a pool of publicly available bicycles placed around the city and ready to be used for a low payment BSS have raised in popularity in the last years due to their potential share in sustainable cities. Although the first attempts to implement a bike-sharing public service date back to 1965 (Amsterdam), their widespread use arrived with the millennium becoming a vibrant research area whose activity has increased steadily in the last decade.
  • 1.3K
  • 02 Mar 2021
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