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Topic Review
Exposome and Asthma
Asthma is a widespread respiratory disease caused by complex contribution from genetic, environmental and behavioral factors. For several decades, its sensitivity to environmental factors has been investigated in single exposure (or single family of exposures) studies, which might be a narrow approach to tackle the etiology of such a complex multifactorial disease. The emergence of the exposome concept, introduced by C. Wild (2005), offers an alternative to address exposure–health associations. 
  • 899
  • 16 Feb 2021
Topic Review
mGluR1-PKCγ in the Pathogenesis of Spinocerebellar Ataxias
Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a heterogeneous group of autosomal dominantly inherited progressive disorders with degeneration and dysfunction of the cerebellum. The genetic background of SCAs can be classified into two groups: Group I representing repeat expansion SCAs, such as SCA1 and SCA2 which are caused by dynamic repeat expansion mutations, typically polyglutamine repeat expansions, and Group II representing conventional mutation SCAs (non-repeat expansion SCAs), which are caused by nonsense mutations, missense mutations, deletions or insertions, such as SCA5 or SCA14. 
  • 899
  • 14 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Osteoporosis and Environmental Substances
Osteoporosis is a disease having adverse effects on bone health and causing fragility fractures. Osteoporosis affects approximately 200 million people worldwide, and nearly 9 million fractures occur annually. Evidence exists that, in addition to traditional risk factors, certain environmental substances may increase the risk of osteoporosis.
  • 897
  • 09 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Genetic Alterations of Colorectal Cancer
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common types of cancer in the world, and targeted therapy is frequently used in the clinical management of this cancer.  An accurate picture of gene abnormalities observed in this cancer is therefore critical. This entry illustrates some of the recent developments underlying the discovery of the numerous genetic abnormalities observed in colorectal cancer that have helped both to better understand how this tumor develops and to identify therapeutic targets for the development of new therapies.
  • 896
  • 04 Nov 2020
Topic Review
Feeder of Lice
A feeder of lice was a job in interwar and Nazi-occupied Poland, in the city of Lwów at the Institute for Study of Typhus and Virology of Rudolf Weigl (Polish: Instytut Badań nad Tyfusem Plamistym i Wirusami prof. Rudolfa Weigla) in Lwów (Lviv, Ukraine ). It involved serving as a source of blood for lice, a typhus vector, which could then be used to develop vaccines against the disease. Initially begun in 1920 by Weigl, during the German occupation of the city it became the primary means of support and protection for many of the city's Polish intellectuals, including the mathematician Stefan Banach and the poet Zbigniew Herbert. While the profession carried a significant risk of infection, thanks to Weigl's patronage the feeders of lice obtained additional food rations, were protected from being shipped to slave labor in Germany or German concentration camps, and were allowed additional mobility around the occupied city. Typhus research involving human subjects, who were purposely infected with the disease, was also carried out in various Nazi concentration camps, in particular at Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen and to a lesser extent at Auschwitz.
  • 893
  • 01 Nov 2022
Topic Review
On Ancient Medicine
The treatise On Ancient Medicine (Greek: Περὶ Ἀρχαίας Ἰατρικῆς; Latin: De vetere medicina) is perhaps the most intriguing and compelling work of the Hippocratic Corpus. The Corpus itself is a collection of about sixty writings covering all areas of medical thought and practice. Traditionally associated with Hippocrates, (c. 460 BC – c. 370 BC) the father of Western medicine, philological evidence now suggests that it was written over a period of several centuries and stylistically seems to indicate that it was the product of many authors dating from about 450-400 B.C.
  • 893
  • 23 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Intermittent Explosive Disorder
Intermittent explosive disorder (sometimes abbreviated as IED) is a behavioral disorder characterized by explosive outbursts of anger and/or violence, often to the point of rage, that are disproportionate to the situation at hand (e.g., impulsive shouting, screaming or excessive reprimanding triggered by relatively inconsequential events). Impulsive aggression is not premeditated, and is defined by a disproportionate reaction to any provocation, real or perceived. Some individuals have reported affective changes prior to an outburst, such as tension, mood changes, energy changes, etc. The disorder is currently categorized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) under the "Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders" category. The disorder itself is not easily characterized and often exhibits comorbidity with other mood disorders, particularly bipolar disorder. Individuals diagnosed with IED report their outbursts as being brief (lasting less than an hour), with a variety of bodily symptoms (sweating, stuttering, chest tightness, twitching, palpitations) reported by a third of one sample. Aggressive acts are frequently reported accompanied by a sensation of relief and in some cases pleasure, but often followed by later remorse.
  • 892
  • 01 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Peripheral Arterial Disease
Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is a pathological condition in which the blood supply to peripheral tissues is inadequate as a result of arterial dysfunction. 95% of PAD cases are caused by atherosclerosis, and 5% are due to vasculitis, genetic causes, and consequences of trauma. The main symptom of PAD is intermittent claudication. The most important test for the diagnosis of PAD is the measurement of the ankle-brachial index (ABI), which is the ratio of systolic blood pressure measured at the ankle to systolic blood pressure measured at the upper arm. A value below 0.9 is considered a criterion for the diagnosis of PAD. Due to increased vascular stiffness, PAD may be overstated in patients with diabetes.
  • 891
  • 30 Jun 2021
Topic Review
Adaptive Clinical Trial
An adaptive clinical trial is a dynamic clinical trial that evaluates a medical device or treatment by observing participant outcomes (and possibly other measures, such as side-effects) on a prescribed schedule, and, uniquely, modifying parameters of the trial protocol in accord with those observations. This is in contrast to traditional randomized clinical trials (RCTs) that are static in their protocol and do not modify any parameters until the trial is completed. The adaptation process generally continues throughout the trial, as prescribed in the trial protocol. Adaptions may include modifications to: dosage, sample size, drug undergoing trial, patient selection criteria and/or "cocktail" mix. In some cases, trials have become an ongoing process that regularly adds and drops therapies and patient groups as more information is gained. Importantly, the trial protocol is set before the trial begins which pre-specifies the adaptation schedule and processes.
  • 890
  • 30 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Derma-Hc
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic cutaneous disorder that is characterized by severe eczematous inflammation, swelling, and lichenification. Activation of T helper (Th)-22 cells by allergens leads to epidermal hyperplasia with hyperkeratosis at the chronic phase of AD. Derma-Hc is composed of five natural herbs with anti-AD effects, such as Astragalus membranaceus BUNGE, Schizonepeta tenuifolia Briq., Cryptotympana pustulata Fabr., Angelica sinensis Diels, Arctium lappa L. In this study, the ameliorative effect of Derma-Hc on cutaneous lichenification in 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzne (DNCB)-induced AD was investigated. The dorsal skin of mice was sensitized with DNCB to induce AD-like skin lesions. The dermatitis score and frequency of scratching were evaluated. Thickness of epidermis and dermis was measured by staining with H&E. In addition, infiltration of the mast cell was observed by staining with toluidine blue. Then, desmosomal cadherin, DSC1 was examined by immunofluorescence. Pathological mechanisms involved in lichenification were analyzed in AD-like skin lesions and TNF-α + IFN-γ-treated with human keratinocytes including keratinocyte differentiation genes and JAK1-STAT3 signaling pathway with IL-22 by RT-PCR and western blotting. Topical treatment of Derma-Hc improved AD-like symptoms such as dryness, edema and lichenefication and decreased the number of scratches. Histopathological analysis demonstrated that Derma-Hc significantly inhibited epidermal hyperplasia, hyperkeratosis, and mast cells infiltration. 
  • 886
  • 22 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Obesity and Asthma in Adults/Children
Obesity increases the risk of developing asthma in children and adults. Obesity is associated with different effects on lung function in children and adults. In adults, obesity has been associated with reduced lung function resulting from a relatively small effect on forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) and forced vital capacity (FVC), with the FEV1/FVC ratio remaining unchanged or mildly increased (restrictive pattern). In contrast, in children, obesity is associated with normal or higher FEV1 and FVC but a lower FEV1/FVC ratio (obstructive pattern). This anomaly has recently been associated with a phenomenon known as dysanapsis which results from a disproportionate growth between lung parenchyma size and airway calibre. The mechanisms that promote disproportionate lung parenchyma growth compared with airways in obese children remain to be elucidated. Obesity and dysanapsis in asthma patients might contribute to asthma morbidity by increasing airway obstruction, airway hyper-reactivity and airway inflammation. Obesity and dysanapsis in asthma patients are associated with increased medication use, more emergency department visits, hospitalizations and systemic corticosteroid burst than patients with normal weight. Dysanapsis may explain the reduced response to asthma medications in obese children. Weight loss results in a significant improvement in lung function, airway reactivity and asthma control.
  • 883
  • 27 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Nerve Growth Factor and Autoimmune Diseases
Nerve growth factor (NGF) plays a crucial immunomodulatory role and increased levels are found in numerous tissues during autoimmune states. NGF directly modulates innate and adaptive immune responses of B and T cells and causes the release of neuropeptides and neurotransmitters controlling the immune system activation in inflamed tissues. Evidence suggests that NGF is involved in the pathogenesis of numerous immune diseases including autoimmune thyroiditis, chronic arthritis, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, mastocytosis, and chronic granulomatous disease. Furthermore, as NGF levels have been linked to disease severity, it could be considered an optimal early biomarker to identify therapeutic approach efficacy. In conclusion, by gaining insights into how these molecules function and which cells they interact with, future studies can devise targeted therapies to address various neurological, immunological, and other disorders more effectively. This knowledge may pave the way for innovative treatments based on NGF manipulation aimed at improving the quality of life for individuals affected by diseases involving neurotrophins.
  • 882
  • 16 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Primary Hypertrophic Osteoathropathy
Pachydermoperiostosis (PDP) or primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is a rare genetic disorder that affects both bones and skin. Other names are idiopathic hypertrophic osteoarthropathy or Touraine-Solente-Golé syndrome. It is mainly characterized by pachydermia (thickening of the skin), periostosis (excessive bone formation) and finger clubbing (swelling of tissue with loss of normal angle between nail and nail bed). This disease affects relatively more men than women. After onset, the disease stabilizes after about 5–20 years. Life of PDP patients can be severely impaired. Currently, symptomatic treatments are NSAIDs and steroids or surgical procedures. In 1868, PDP was first described by Friedreich as ‘excessive growth of bone of the entire skeleton’. Touraine, Solente and Golé described PDP as the primary form of bone disease hypertrophic osteoarthropathy in 1935 and distinguished its three known forms.
  • 879
  • 03 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Gene Therapy for Choroideremia
Choroideremia (CHM) is an X-linked recessive chorioretinal dystrophy caused by mutations involving the CHM gene. Gene therapy has entered late-phase clinical trials, although there have been variable results.
  • 878
  • 26 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Human Placenta Modeling
The human placenta brings the maternal and fetal circulatory systems into contact while keeping them independent, due to its intricate structure and adaptation in pregnancy. The placental barrier, composed essentially of trophoblasts, connective tissue and endothelium, separates the fetal and maternal compartments and is a key structure for this organ’s function. Maternal—fetal exchange takes place in the areas where the barrier is an extremely thin membrane (only 3.5 μm thick). Many of the human placental barrier functions are little understood and more representative models are still needed to better recapitulate the complex architecture and dynamics of the human fetal—placental barrier and provide a more in-depth understanding of the organ’s function.
  • 878
  • 16 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Steroidal Saponins
Cancer is a global health burden responsible for an exponentially growing number of incidences and mortalities, regardless of the significant advances in its treatment. The identification of the hallmarks of cancer is a major milestone in understanding the mechanisms that drive cancer initiation, development, and progression. The hallmarks of cancer have been targeted to effectively treat various types of cancers. These conventional cancer drugs have shown significant therapeutic efficacy but continue to impose unfavorable side effects on patients. Naturally derived compounds are being tested in the search for alternative anti-cancer drugs. Steroidal saponins are a group of naturally occurring compounds that primarily exist as secondary metabolites in plant species. Studies have suggested that steroidal saponins possess significant anti-cancer capabilities. 
  • 878
  • 18 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Chronic Urticaria
Urticaria is a condition characterized by the development of itchy wheals (hives). Chronic urticaria (CU) is a condition characterized by the development of itchy wheals (hives), angioedema, or both, with reoccurring symptoms for more than six weeks.
  • 876
  • 11 May 2023
Topic Review
Electronic Patient-Reported Outcomes in Hemodialysis
The success of hemodialysis (HD) treatments has been evaluated using objective measures of analytical parameters, or machine-measured parameters, despite having available validated instruments that assess patient perspective. Patient-reported outcomes (PROMs) and patient-reported experience measures (PREMs) collectively referred to as PROs (patient-related outcomes). Electronic patient-reported outcomes (ePROs) encompass the use of digital technology to provide answers to standardized PRO questionnaires.
  • 875
  • 18 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Congestive Hepatopathy
Liver disease resulting from heart failure (HF) has generally been referred as “cardiac hepatopathy”. One of its main forms is congestive hepatopathy (CH), which results from passive venous congestion in the setting of chronic right-sided HF. The current spectrum of CH differs from earlier reports with HF, due to ischemic cardiomyopathy and congenital heart disease having surpassed rheumatic valvular disease. The chronic passive congestion leads to sinusoidal hypertension, centrilobular fibrosis, and ultimately, cirrhosis (“cardiac cirrhosis”) and hepatocellular carcinoma after several decades of ongoing injury. Contrary to primary liver diseases, in CH, inflammation seems to play no role in the progression of liver fibrosis, bridging fibrosis occurs between central veins to produce a “reversed lobulation” pattern and the performance of non-invasive diagnostic tests of liver fibrosis is poor. Although the clinical picture and prognosis is usually dominated by the underlying heart condition, the improved long-term survival of cardiac patients due to advances in medical and surgical treatments are responsible for the increased number of liver complications in this setting. Eventually, liver disease could become as clinically relevant as cardiac disease and further complicate its management.
  • 872
  • 17 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Somatostatin Receptor Ligands in Clinical Management of Acromegaly
Somatostatin receptor ligands (SRLs) represent a true milestone in the medical therapy for acromegaly. The first-generation SRLs (FG-SRLs), octreotide and lanreotide, have demonstrated good efficacy in disease control and tumor shrinkage, and are still considered first-line medical therapies. The development of long-acting release (LAR) formulations has certainly improved the therapeutic tolerability of these drugs.  In the case of FG-SRL-resistant disease, pasireotide, the only second generation SRL currently available, demonstrated superiority in disease control and tumor shrinkage compared to FG-SRLs. However, its use in clinical practice is still limited due to concern for impairment in glucose homeostasis.
  • 872
  • 21 Jul 2022
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