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Topic Review
Petya (Malware)
Petya is a family of encrypting malware that was first discovered in 2016. The malware targets Microsoft Windows–based systems, infecting the master boot record to execute a payload that encrypts a hard drive's file system table and prevents Windows from booting. It subsequently demands that the user make a payment in Bitcoin in order to regain access to the system. The Petya malware had infected millions of people during its first year of its release. The maker of the Petya malware was arrested and fined.[citation needed] Variants of Petya were first seen in March 2016, which propagated via infected e-mail attachments. In June 2017, a new variant of Petya was used for a global cyberattack, primarily targeting Ukraine . The new variant propagates via the EternalBlue exploit, which is generally believed to have been developed by the United States . National Security Agency (NSA), and was used earlier in the year by the WannaCry ransomware. Kaspersky Lab referred to this new version as NotPetya to distinguish it from the 2016 variants, due to these differences in operation. In addition, although it purports to be ransomware, this variant was modified so that it is unable to actually revert its own changes. The NotPetya attacks have been blamed on the Russian government, specifically the Sandworm hacking group within the GRU Russian military intelligence organization, by security researchers, Google, and several governments.
  • 798
  • 17 Nov 2022
Topic Review
MIDI 1.0
The Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) specification version 1.0 describes the communications protocol and the message format, as well electrical connector. MIDI 1.0 is a one-way connection from the MIDI Out connector of the sending device to the MIDI In connector of the receiving device, transmitted serially at a rate of 31.25 kbit/s.
  • 796
  • 15 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Physics of the Future
Physics of the Future: How Science Will Shape Human Destiny and Our Daily Lives by the Year 2100 is a 2011 book by theoretical physicist Michio Kaku, author of Hyperspace and Physics of the Impossible. In it Kaku speculates about possible future technological development over the next 100 years. He interviews notable scientists about their fields of research and lays out his vision of coming developments in medicine, computing, artificial intelligence, nanotechnology, and energy production. The book was on the New York Times Bestseller List for five weeks. Kaku writes how he hopes his predictions for 2100 will be as successful as science fiction writer Jules Verne's 1863 novel Paris in the Twentieth Century. Kaku contrasts Verne's foresight against U.S. Postmaster General John Wanamaker, who in 1893 predicted that mail would still be delivered by stagecoach and horseback in 100 years' time, and IBM chairman Thomas J. Watson, who in 1943 is alleged to have said "I think there is a world market for maybe five computers." Kaku points to this long history of failed predictions against progress to underscore his notion "that it is very dangerous to bet against the future".
  • 790
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Set Notation
Sets are fundamental objects in mathematics. Intuitively, a set is merely a collection of elements or members. There are various conventions for textually denoting sets. In any particular situation, an author typically chooses from among these conventions depending on which properties of the set are most relevant to the immediate context or on which perspective is most useful.
  • 789
  • 17 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Crowds
Crowds is a proposed anonymity network for anonymous web browsing. The main idea behind Crowds anonymity protocol is to hide each user's communications by routing them randomly within a group of similar users. Neither the collaborating group members nor the end receiver can therefore be sure where in the group the packet originated. Crowds was designed by Michael K. Reiter and Aviel D. Rubin. It defends against internal attackers and a corrupt receiver, but provides no anonymity against a global attacker or a local eavesdropper (see "Crowds: Anonymity For Web Transactions"). Crowds is vulnerable to the predecessor attack; this was discussed in Reiter and Rubin's paper and further expanded in "The Predecessor Attack: An Analysis of a Threat to Anonymous Communications Systems" by Matthew K. Wright, Micah Adler, And Brian Neil Levine. Crowds introduced the concept of users blending into a crowd of computers.
  • 789
  • 08 Nov 2022
Topic Review
NcRNAs in Human Diseases
The mammalian genome comprehends a small minority of genes that encode for proteins (barely 2% of the total genome in humans) and an immense majority of genes that are transcribed into RNA but not encoded for proteins (ncRNAs). These non-coding genes are intimately related to the expression regulation of protein-coding genes. The ncRNAs subtypes differ in their size, so there are long non-coding genes (lncRNAs) and other smaller ones, like microRNAs (miRNAs) and piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs). Due to their important role in the maintenance of cellular functioning, any deregulation of the expression profiles of these ncRNAs can dissemble in the development of different types of diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative, or cardiovascular disorders.
  • 788
  • 16 Mar 2021
Topic Review
Tuxedo
Tuxedo (Transactions for Unix, Extended for Distributed Operations) is a middleware platform used to manage distributed transaction processing in distributed computing environments. Tuxedo is a transaction processing system or transaction-oriented middleware, or enterprise application server for a variety of systems and programming languages. Developed by AT&T in the 1980s, it became a software product of Oracle Corporation in 2008 when they acquired BEA Systems. Tuxedo is now part of the Oracle Fusion Middleware.
  • 788
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Apple Network Server
The Apple Network Server (ANS) was a line of PowerPC-based server computers designed, manufactured and sold by Apple Computer, Inc. from February 1996 to April 1997. It was codenamed "Shiner" and originally consisted of two models, the Network Server 500/132 ("Shiner LE", i.e., "low-end") and the Network Server 700/150 ("Shiner HE", i.e., "high-end"), which got a companion model, the Network Server 700/200 (also "Shiner HE") with a faster CPU in November 1996. The machines were not a part of the Apple Macintosh line of computers; they were designed to run IBM's AIX operating system and their ROM specifically prevented booting the classic Mac OS. This makes them the last non-Macintosh desktop computers made by Apple to date. The 500/132, 700/150, and 97 sold in the U.S. market for $11,000, $15,000 and $19,000, respectively. Apple Network Servers are not to be confused with the Apple Workgroup Servers and the Macintosh Servers, which were Macintosh workstations that shipped with server software and used Mac OS; the sole exception, the Workgroup Server 95—a Quadra 950 with an added SCSI controller that shipped with A/UX—was also capable of running Mac OS. Apple did not have comparable server hardware in their product lineup again until the introduction of the Xserve in 2002. The product's short lifespan is attributed to significant financial troubles at Apple in early 1997. CEO Gil Amelio cancelled both Network Server and OpenDoc in the same meeting as it was determined that they were low priorities.
  • 788
  • 30 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Gadget (Computer Science)
In computational complexity theory, a gadget is a subset of a problem instance that simulates the behavior of one of the fundamental units of a different computational problem. Gadgets are typically used to construct reductions from one computational problem to another, as part of proofs of NP-completeness or other types of computational hardness. The component design technique is a method for constructing reductions by using gadgets. (Szabó 2009) traces the use of gadgets to a 1954 paper in graph theory by W. T. Tutte, in which Tutte provided gadgets for reducing the problem of finding a subgraph with given degree constraints to a perfect matching problem. However, the "gadget" terminology has a later origin, and does not appear in Tutte's paper.
  • 787
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Loco2
Loco2, now rebranded as Rail Europe, is an online booking service for train travel in the United Kingdom and Europe. It sells tickets through its website and via its smartphone app which is available on iOS and Android platforms. It was founded in 2006 by brother and sister Jamie and Kate Andrews, and started trading in 2012 from its headquarters in London. Loco2 website and apps were rebranded Rail Europe in November 2019.
  • 786
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Qiskit
Qiskit is an open-source software development kit (SDK) for working with quantum computers at the level of circuits, pulses, and algorithms. It provides tools for creating and manipulating quantum programs and running them on prototype quantum devices on IBM Quantum Experience or on simulators on a local computer. It follows the circuit model for universal quantum computation, and can be used for any quantum hardware (currently supports superconducting qubits and trapped ions) that follows this model. Qiskit was founded by IBM Research to allow software development for their cloud quantum computing service, IBM Quantum Experience. Contributions are also made by external supporters, typically from academic institutions. The primary version of Qiskit uses the Python programming language. Versions for Swift and JavaScript were initially explored, though the development for these versions have halted. Instead, a minimal re-implementation of basic features is available as MicroQiskit, which is made to be easy to port to alternative platforms. A range of Jupyter notebooks are provided with examples of quantum computing being used. Examples include the source code behind scientific studies that use Qiskit, as well as a set of exercises to help people to learn the basics of quantum programming. An open source textbook based on Qiskit is available as a university-level quantum algorithms or quantum computation course supplement.
  • 786
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Canadian Internet Registration Authority
The Canadian Internet Registration Authority (CIRA) (French: Autorité canadienne pour les enregistrements Internet ACEI) is the organization that manages the .ca country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Canada. Its offices are located at 979 Bank Street in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. CIRA sets the policies and agendas that support Canada's Internet community and Canada's involvement in international Internet governance. It is a member-driven organization with membership open to all that hold a .ca domain. As of May 2020, there were more than 2.9 million active .ca domains.
  • 783
  • 09 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Suzuki TT Superbikes
Suzuki TT Superbikes: Real Road Racing, often shortened to simply Suzuki TT Superbikes; also known as TT Superbikes: Real Road Racing in Europe and Japan, is a 2005 motorcycle simulation racing video game developed by Jester Interactive exclusively for the PlayStation 2 gaming console. The game was self–published by Jester in Europe, with Valcon Games and Taito handling publishing in North America and Japan, respectively. In North America, the game is licensed under Suzuki, an automobile manufacturer. The title features over 50 licensed vehicles and is entirely based around the famed Isle of Man TT race, a 60.72 km annual competition held within the Isle of Man. It is the second game based on the race, following the 1995 release of Manx TT Super Bike, though this game was only based on the Manx TT event, which is a small section of the course. The game was available on the PlayStation 3 via the North American PlayStation Store. Suzuki TT Superbikes has since received two sequels.
  • 783
  • 30 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Belt Machine
In computer engineering and in programming language implementations, a belt machine is a real or emulated computer that uses a first in, first out (FIFO) queue rather than individual machine processor registers to evaluate each sub-expression in the program. A belt computer is programmed with an instruction set that specifies arguments explicitly but results implicitly. The common alternative to belt machines are register machines, in which each instruction explicitly names the specific registers to use for locations of operand arguments and results. Belt machines are related to stack machines, which specify both arguments and results implicitly using a pushdown stack. Other alternatives are accumulator machines, which have only one visible general-purpose temp register, and memory-to-memory machines, which have no visible temp registers. A belt machine implements temporary storage with a fixed-length FIFO queue, or belt by analogy to a conveyor belt. The operands of the arithmetic logic units (ALUs) and other functional units may be taken from any position on the belt, and the result from the computation is dropped (stored) in the front position of the belt, advancing the belt to make room. As the belt is fixed length, drops in the front are matched by older operands falling off the back; pushed-off operands become inaccessible and must be explicitly saved if still needed for later work. Most operations of the instruction set work only with data on the belt, not on data registers or main memory cells. For a typical instruction like add, both argument operands come from explicitly named positions on the belt, and the result is dropped on the front, ready for the next instruction. Operations with multiple results simply drop more values at the belt front. Most belt instructions are encoded as just an operation code (opcode) and two belt positions, with no added fields to specify a result register, memory address, or literal constant. This encoding is easily extended to richer operations with more than two inputs or more than one result. Constant operands are dropped by separate load immediate instructions. All access of program variables in main random-access memory (RAM) is segregated into separate load or store instructions containing one memory address, or some way to calculate that address from belt operands. All belt machines have variants of the load/store opcodes to access local variables and the heap. This can be by offsets, from a pointer on the belt, or from various special-purpose base registers. Similarly, there will be instructions to branch to an address taken from the belt, along with branches relative to the program counter.
  • 782
  • 20 Oct 2022
Topic Review
TRACE (Psycholinguistics)
TRACE is a connectionist model of speech perception, proposed by James McClelland and Jeffrey Elman in 1986. It is based on a structure called "the Trace," a dynamic processing structure made up of a network of units, which performs as the system's working memory as well as the perceptual processing mechanism. TRACE was made into a working computer program for running perceptual simulations. These simulations are predictions about how a human mind/brain processes speech sounds and words as they are heard in real time.
  • 781
  • 24 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Comprehensive School Mathematics Program
Comprehensive School Mathematics Program (CSMP) stands for both the name of a curriculum and the name of the project that was responsible for developing curriculum materials in the United States. Two major curricula were developed as part of the overall CSMP project: the Comprehensive School Mathematics Program (CSMP), a K–6 mathematics program for regular classroom instruction, and the Elements of Mathematics (EM) program, a grades 7–12 mathematics program for gifted students. EM treats traditional topics rigorously and in-depth, and was the only curriculum that strictly adhered to Goals for School Mathematics: The Report of the Cambridge Conference on School Mathematics (1963). As a result, it includes much of the content generally required for an undergraduate mathematics major. These two curricula are unrelated to one another, but certain members of the CSMP staff contributed to the development of both projects. Additionally, some staff were involved with the Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum Improvement Study program being developed around the same time. What follows is a description of the K–6 program that was designed for a general, heterogeneous audience. The CSMP project was established in 1966, under the direction of Burt Kaufman, who remained director until 1979, succeeded by Clare Heidema. It was originally affiliated with Southern Illinois University in Carbondale, Illinois. After a year of planning, CSMP was incorporated into the Central Midwest Regional Educational Laboratory (later CEMREL, Inc.), one of the national educational laboratories funded at that time by the U.S. Office of Education. In 1984, the project moved to Mid-continental Research for Learning (McREL) Institute's Comprehensive School Reform program, who supported the program until 2003. Heidema remained director to its conclusion. In 1984, it was implemented in 150 school districts in 42 states and about 55,000 students.
  • 780
  • 18 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Regional Accreditation
Regional accreditation is the educational accreditation of schools, colleges, and universities in the United States by one of seven regional accrediting agencies. Accreditation is a voluntary process by which colleges demonstrate to each other, and sometimes to employers and licensing agencies, that their credits and degrees meet minimum standards. It is the self-regulation of the higher education industry. Each regional accreditor oversees the vast majority of public and private educational institutions, both not-for-profit and for-profit, in its region. Their primary function is accreditation of post-secondary institutions, though there is a limited amount of accreditation of primary and secondary schools. Regional accreditation is older than national accreditation and, with a few exceptions, more rigorous than national accreditation. Additionally, most non-profit institutions are regionally accredited while most for-profit colleges and universities are nationally accredited.
  • 780
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Propellerhead Software
Reason Studios (formerly known as Propellerhead Software) is a music software company, based in Stockholm, Sweden, and founded in 1994. It produces the studio emulation Reason.
  • 777
  • 04 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Trace Cache
Trace Cache (also known as execution trace cache) is a very specialized cache which stores the dynamic stream of instructions known as trace. It helps in increasing the instruction fetch bandwidth and decreasing power consumption (in the case of Intel Pentium 4) by storing traces of instructions that have already been fetched and decoded. Trace Processor is an architecture designed around the Trace Cache and processes the instructions at trace level granularity.
  • 776
  • 02 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Two Dimensional Window Design
Windowing is a process where an index limited sequence has its maximum energy concentrated in a finite frequency interval. This can be extended to an N-dimension where the N-D window has the limited support and maximum concentration of energy in a separable or non-separable N-D passband. The design of an N-dimensional window particularly a 2-D window finds applications in various fields such as spectral estimation of multidimensional signals, design of circularly symmetric and quadrantally symmetric non-recursive 2D filters, design of optimal convolution functions, image enhancement so as to reduce the effects of data-dependent processing artifacts, optical apodization and antenna array design.
  • 775
  • 21 Nov 2022
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