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Topic Review
Antineoplastic Therapy Involved in Hypersensitivity Reactions
As widely accepted at present, in addition to their benefits, medicines can also be accompanied by side effects and adverse reactions, of which some can be detrimental to therapies or even life-threatening. In some cases, these effects are enabled or enhanced by certain individual-specific hypersensitivity. Among other manifestations, adverse reactions to drugs resulting from excessive sensitivity may include anaphylaxis. Given that regular toxicity studies are not relevant to point to possible delayed hypersensitivity reactions triggered by systemic products and from the perspective of mechanisms involved in the early and late stages phases of hypersensitivity events, in vitro and in vivo tests remain the means to reveal the cells activated and the mediators released in this process.
  • 400
  • 22 Feb 2023
Topic Review
B-Cell Activating Factor in IBD
B-cell activating factor (BAFF), a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily. BAFF is predominantly produced by myeloid cells (monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and neutrophils), and its main role is regulation of mature B cell survival and differentiation into antibody-producing plasma cells. Overproduction of BAFF has been observed in various autoimmune diseases, most notably in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), where BAFF-inhibitor belimumab was approved for treatment.
  • 399
  • 27 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Lymphatic Clearance of Immune Cells in Cardiovascular Disease
The lymphatic vasculature is a vital component of the cardiovascular system, consisting of a blind-ended, highly permeable vascular network, integral in maintaining tissue homeostasis, regulation of interstitial fluid, lipid absorption, fluid drainage, and immune cell trafficking. Its role in immune cell transport is critical in the initiation of the immune response, especially following injury. This is of particular importance in the heart, where the lymphatic vasculature plays a vital role in myocardial healing following cardiac injury. By promoting cell egress or exit from the heart, the lymphatic systems favour cell clearance by way of reduction of the immune cell load in damaged tissue.
  • 399
  • 13 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Immunological Aspects of Long COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the world unprecedentedly, with both positive and negative impacts. COVID-19 significantly impacted the immune system, and understanding the immunological consequences of COVID-19 is essential for developing effective treatment strategies. The immunological aspects of long COVID-19 is a phenomenon where individuals continue to experience a range of symptoms and complications, even after the acute phase of COVID-19 infection has subsided. The immune system responds to the initial infection by producing various immune cells and molecules, including antibodies, T cells, and cytokines. However, in some patients, this immune response becomes dysregulated, leading to chronic inflammation and persistent symptoms. 
  • 399
  • 06 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Cytotoxic Immune Cell Dysfunction in Leukemia
Leukemia is a malignancy of the bone marrow and blood resulting from the abnormal differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). There are four main types of leukemia including acute myeloid leukemia (AML), acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). While chemotherapy and radiation have been conventional forms of treatment for leukemia, these therapies increase infection susceptibility, adverse side effects and immune cell inactivation. Immunotherapies are becoming promising treatment options for leukemia, with targeted therapies opening the door to a variety of options that maximize cancer cell neutralization and minimize off-target host tissue damage. In order to generate efficacious targeted therapies, it is crucial to pinpoint specific immune cell populations that are impaired to reverse this exhaustion.
  • 397
  • 09 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Immune Response to Tuberculosis Infection: A Structural Overview
Tuberculosis (TB) is the leading global cause of death from an infectious bacterial agent. Limiting tuberculosis epidemic spread is an urgent global public health priority. The larger availability of antigen structural information as well as a better understanding of the complex host immune response to TB infection is a strong premise for a further acceleration of TB vaccine development. The contribution of Structural Vaccinology (SV) to the development of safer and effective antigens is discussed herein.
  • 397
  • 07 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Indomethacin-Induced Inflammation in Brief
Indomethacin, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), has long been employed to induce inflammation in experimental models. This research explores the utility of indomethacin-induced inflammation as a research tool for studying inflammatory processes and evaluating potential anti-inflammatory agents. 
  • 397
  • 08 Oct 2023
Topic Review
HIV Vaccine Development
An HIV vaccine can be either a preventive vaccine or a therapeutic vaccine, which means it can either protect individuals from being infected with HIV or treat HIV-infected individuals. And it can either induce an immune response against HIV (active vaccination approach) or consist of preformed antibodies against HIV (passive vaccination approach). There is currently no licensed HIV vaccine on the market, but multiple research projects are trying to find an effective vaccine. Evidence observed from humans shows that a vaccine may be possible: Some, but certainly not all, HIV-infected individuals naturally produce broadly neutralizing antibodies which keep the virus suppressed, and these people remain asymptomatic for decades. Potential broadly neutralizing antibodies have been cloned in the laboratory (monoclonal antibodies) and are being tested in passive vaccination clinical trials. Many trials have shown no efficacy, but one HIV vaccine regimen, RV 144, has been shown to prevent HIV in some individuals in Thailand. The urgency of the search for a vaccine against HIV stems from the AIDS-related death toll of over 35 million people since 1981. In 2002, AIDS became the primary cause of death due to an infectious agent in Africa. Alternative medical treatments to a vaccine exist. For the treatment of HIV-infected individuals, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) medication has been demonstrated to provide many benefits to HIV-infected individuals, including improved health, increased lifespan, control of viremia, and prevention of transmission to babies and partners. HAART must be taken lifelong without interruption to be effective, and cannot cure HIV. Options for the prevention of HIV infection in HIV-uninfected individuals include safer sex (for example condom use), antiretroviral strategies (pre-exposure prophylaxis and post-exposure prophylaxis) and medical male circumcision. Vaccination has proved a powerful public health tool in vanquishing other diseases, and an HIV vaccine is generally considered as the most likely, and perhaps the only way by which the HIV pandemic can be halted. However, HIV remains a challenging target for a vaccine.
  • 395
  • 27 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Mechanism of NETosis
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are net-like structures released from neutrophils. NETs predominantly contain cell-free deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) decorated with histones and neutrophil granule proteins. Numerous extrinsic and intrinsic stimuli can induce the formation of NETs such as pathogens, cytokines, immune complexes, microcrystals, antibodies, and other physiological stimuli. The mechanism of NETosis induction can either be ROS-dependent or independent based on the catalase producing activity of the pathogen. NADPH is the source of ROS production, which in turn depends on the upregulation of Ca2+ production in the cytoplasm. ROS-independent induction of NETosis is regulated through toll-like receptors (TLRs). Besides capturing and eliminating pathogens, NETs also aggravate the inflammatory response and thus act as a double-edged sword.
  • 393
  • 18 May 2023
Topic Review
Gut Reaction to SIV&SHIV Infection
SIV and SHIV-infected NHPs exhibit a range of viral burdens, pathologies, and responses to combinatorial antiretroviral therapy (cART) regimens and the choice of the NHP model for AIDS could influence outcomes in studies investigating interventions. Previously, in rhesus macaques (RMs) we showed that maintenance of mucosal Th17/Treg homeostasis during SIV infection correlated with a better virological response to cART. Here, in RMs we compared viral kinetics and dysregulation of gut homeostasis, defined by T cell subset disruption, during highly pathogenic SIVΔB670 compared to SHIV-1157ipd3N4 infection.SHIV infection resulted in lower acute viremia and less disruption to gut CD4 T-cell homeostasis. Additionally, 24/24 SHIV-infected versus 10/19 SIV-infected animals had sustained viral suppression <100 copies/mL of plasma after 5 months of cART. Significantly, the more profound viral suppression during cART in a subset of SIV and all SHIV-infected RMs corresponded with less gut immune dysregulation during acute SIV/SHIV infection, defined by maintenance of the Th17/Treg ratio. These results highlight significant differences in viral control during cART and gut dysregulation in NHP AIDS models and suggest that selection of a model may impact the evaluation of candidate therapeutic interventions for HIV treatment and cure strategies. 
  • 392
  • 26 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Immune Cells in Oxi-Inflamm-Aging
Since immune cells need to produce oxidant and inflammatory compounds to carry out their defensive function, when uncontrolled, they may be responsible for the generation of oxidative-inflammatory stress that would not only cause their functional deterioration (immunosenescence) but could also increase these stresses in the body, accelerating the aging process. Given that phagocytes (neutrophils in humans and macrophages in mice) are the main immune cell type that generates oxidants throughout the “respiratory burst” in which NADPH oxidase and xanthine oxidase enzymes participate, they were proposed to play a central role in oxi-inflamm-aging.
  • 392
  • 24 Nov 2021
Topic Review
NKG2A Immune Checkpoint in Vδ2 T Cells
Targeting NKG2A immune checkpoint by gene knockout or blocking antibodies improves the cytotoxicity of Vδ2 T cells, a specific subset of human unconventional γδ T lymphocytes. Thus, a suitable selection of NKG2A+ or NKG2A− Vδ2 T cells for expansion or engineering could help to narrow the Vδ2 T cell population according to the expression of HLA-E on tumor cells. With this emerging knowledge, approaches to target NKG2A in Vδ2 T cells might be a promising step forward to boosting Vδ2 T cell-based cancer immunotherapies.
  • 391
  • 02 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Types of Danger-Associated Molecular Patterns
The innate system is primed to sense “danger signals”, described as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and respond to them, usually by activating the immune system and creating a pro-inflammatory environment. These DAMPs are molecules that are inherent to the organism but have a high pro-inflammatory power when they are detected in places where they are not usually present, such as in extracellular or free-form contexts, which is an indicator of tissue damage and produced in surgical processes. DAMPs are molecules inherent to the organism, but which have a high proinflammatory power by activating the inflammasome when detected in places where they are not usually present, such as in extracellular contexts or in free form. The presence of DAMPs is an indicator of tissue damage and can be produced in surgical processes. 
  • 391
  • 07 Mar 2023
Topic Review
Regulatory T Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Human Diseases
Regulatory T (Treg) cells play crucial roles in maintaining immune self-tolerance and immune homeostasis, and closely associated with many human diseases. Treg cells-derived extracellular vesicles (Treg-EVs) have been demonstrated as a novel cell-contact independent inhibitory mechanism of Treg cells. Treg-EVs contain many specific biological molecules, which are delivered to target cells and modulate immune responses by inhibiting T cell proliferation, inducing T cell apoptosis, and changing the cytokine expression profiles of target cells. The abnormal quantity or function of Treg-EVs is associated with several types of human diseases or conditions, such as transplant rejection, inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, and cancers. Treg-EVs are promising novel potential targets for disease diagnosis, therapy, and drug transport. Moreover, Treg-EVs possess distinct advantages over Treg cell-based immunotherapies. 
  • 390
  • 29 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Role of RasGRP1 in Cancer
The dysregulation of RasGRP1 (Ras guanine nucleotide-releasing protein 1) is known to contribute to numerous disorders that range from autoimmune and inflammatory diseases and schizophrenia to neoplasia. Given its position at the crossroad of cell development, inflammation, and cancer, RASGRP1 has garnered interest from numerous disciplines.
  • 389
  • 29 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Bovine Immunity and Vitamin D3
Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) is an environmentally hardy pathogen of ruminants that is transmitted via the fecal-oral route. Transition from subclinical to clinical infection is a dynamic process led by MAP, which survives and replicates in host macrophages. Hallmark clinical symptoms include granulomatous enteritis, watery diarrhea, and significant loss of body condition. Clinical stage disease is accompanied by dysfunctional immune responses and a reduction in circulating vitamin D3. The immunomodulatory role of vitamin D3 in infectious disease has been well established in humans, particularly in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. However, significant species differences exist between the immune system of humans and bovines, including effects induced by vitamin D3. 
  • 388
  • 27 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Factors Modulate Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the earliest infiltrating cells in PanIN lesions and continue to rise throughout cancer progression. TAMs are the most abundant immune cells in the stroma and are the key drivers shaping the immunosuppressive landscape. There are various mechanisms employed to polarize macrophages to tumor-supporting subtypes which subsequently unleash the plethora of neoplastic characteristics, including promoting malignant cell proliferation, augmenting angiogenesis, metastasis, acquiring pleiotropic pancreatic cancer stem-like cells, supporting chemoresistance.
  • 388
  • 13 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Implications of Flaviviruses Immunity on ZIKV Vaccine
The Zika virus (ZIKV) was first isolated from a rhesus macaque in the Zika forest of Uganda in 1947. Isolated cases were reported until 2007, when the first major outbreaks of Zika infection were reported from the Island of Yap in Micronesia and from French Polynesia in 2013. In 2015, ZIKV started to circulate in Latin America, and in 2016, ZIKV was considered by WHO to be a Public Health Emergency of International Concern due to cases of Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS), a ZIKV-associated complication never observed before. After a peak of cases in 2016, the infection incidence dropped dramatically but still causes concern because of the associated microcephaly cases, especially in regions where the dengue virus (DENV) is endemic and co-circulates with ZIKV. A vaccine could be an important tool to mitigate CZS in endemic countries. However, the immunological relationship between ZIKV and other flaviviruses, especially DENV, and the low numbers of ZIKV infections are potential challenges for developing and testing a vaccine against ZIKV.
  • 388
  • 02 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Degranulation of Mast Cells as Drug Development Target
Mast cells act as key effector cells of inflammatory responses through degranulation. Mast cell degranulation is induced by the activation of cell surface receptors, such as FcεRI, MRGPRX2/B2, and P2RX7. Each receptor, except FcεRI, varies in its expression pattern depending on the tissue, which contributes to their differing involvement in inflammatory responses depending on the site of occurrence. 
  • 387
  • 09 Jun 2023
Topic Review
NOD2 in Alzheimer’s Diseases
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a progressive decline in cognitive function, including memory loss, language difficulties, and changes in behavior. Researchers have demonstrated the potential of Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2 (NOD2) receptor agonists in AD treatment. These agonists facilitate the conversation of pro-inflammatory monocytes into patrolling monocytes, leading to the efficient clearance of amyloid-β (Aβ) in the AD-affected cerebrovascular system. This approach surpasses the efficacy of targeting Aβ formation, marking a significant shift in therapeutic strategies. 
  • 386
  • 07 Jul 2023
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