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Topic Review
Vascular Alterations in Alzheimer’s Disease Brains
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common degenerative disorder in the elderly in developed countries. Growing evidence is pointing at endothelial dysfunction as a key player in the cognitive decline course of AD. As a main component of the blood–brain barrier (BBB), the dysfunction of endothelial cells driven by vascular risk factors associated with AD allows the passage of toxic substances to the cerebral parenchyma, producing chronic hypoperfusion that eventually causes an inflammatory and neurotoxic response.
  • 919
  • 06 Apr 2023
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 and Brain
The second year of the COVID-19 (coronavirus disease) pandemic has seen the need to identify and assess the long-term consequences of a SARS-CoV-2 infection on an individual’s overall wellbeing, including adequate cognitive functioning. ‘Cognitive COVID’ is an informal term coined to interchangeably refer to acute changes in cognition during COVID-19 and/or cognitive sequelae with various deficits following the infection. These may manifest as altered levels of consciousness, encephalopathy-like symptoms, delirium, and loss of various memory domains. Dysexecutive syndrome is a peculiar manifestation of ‘Cognitive COVID’ as well.
  • 918
  • 12 Aug 2021
Topic Review
STIM1 for Intracellular Calcium Handling
Stromal interacting molecule 1 (STIM1), a single transmembrane-spanning domain protein mainly residing in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is the unique ER Ca2+sensor deputed to ER Ca2+refilling. STIM1 was identified in 2005 by RNA interference-based screening of proteins with known signaling motifs. Molecularly, STIM1, residing into the organelle, senses luminal Ca2+ concentration by its N-terminus with a low affinity with an apparent dissociation constant (Kd) of ~0.2–0.6 mM and interferes with several plasma membrane ionic proteins. In this way, STIM1 coordinates the  complex Ca2+ entry mechanism called store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) deputed to ER Ca2+ recharge.
  • 918
  • 03 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Cannabis Use
Cannabis is a natural drug that humans have been consuming for over 4000 years for medicinal, industrial and ritual purposes. More than 400 chemical compounds can be found in the cannabis plant, of which at least 144 are cannabinoids. Among the cannabinoid compounds, the most important one is tetrahydrocannabinol or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC or Δ9-THC), the main psychoactive component of cannabis. Recently, the increase in its use, both medicinal and recreational, its progressive legalization and the change in the cannabis market have caused a greater interest in the research of this drug.
  • 916
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Association of Inflammatory Cytokine Genes with Depression
Depressive disorders are a heterogeneous group of diseases. The etiology, precise pathophysiological mechanisms, response to treatment, and outcome of depressive disorders are still poorly understood. The cytokine hypothesis of depression proposes that pro-inflammatory cytokines acting as neuromodulators are a key factor mediating behavioral, neuroendocrine, and neurochemical changes in this disease.
  • 916
  • 03 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Anderson–Fabry Disease and Neurodegeneration
Anderson–Fabry disease (AFD) is an inherited lysosomal storage disorder characterized by a composite and multisystemic clinical phenotype and frequent involvement of the central nervous system (CNS). Research in this area has largely focused on the cerebrovascular manifestations of the disease, and very little has been described about further neurological manifestations, which are known in other lysosomal diseases, such as Gaucher disease. In particular, a clinical and neuroimaging phenotype suggesting neurodegeneration as a putative mechanism has never been fully described for AFD.
  • 914
  • 26 Dec 2022
Topic Review
Expression and Regulation of INPP5D in  Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, accounting for approximately 38.5 million cases of all-cause dementia. Microglial cells, the innate immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), have long been established as guardians of the brain by providing neuroprotection and maintaining cellular homeostasis. A protein with a myriad of effects on various important signaling pathways that is expressed in microglia is the Src Homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing Inositol 5′ Phosphatase 1 (SHIP1) protein. Encoded by the INPP5D (Inositol Polyphosphate-5-Phosphatase D) gene, SHIP1 has diminutive effects on most microglia signaling processes. Polymorphisms of the INPP5D gene have been found to be associated with a significantly increased risk of AD.
  • 914
  • 09 Oct 2023
Topic Review
GAN-Based Applications in Parkinson’s Disease Diagnosis and Treatment
Data scarcity in the healthcare domain is a major drawback for most state-of-the-art technologies engaging artificial intelligence. The unavailability of quality data due to both the difficulty to gather and label them as well as due to their sensitive nature create a breeding ground for data augmentation solutions. Parkinson’s Disease (PD) which can have a wide range of symptoms including motor impairments consists of a very challenging case for quality data acquisition. Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) can help alleviate such data availability issues.
  • 914
  • 22 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Immunotherapy Treatment of Glioblastoma
Glioblastoma (GBM) is a lethal primary brain tumor.
  • 913
  • 15 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Lower Extremity Peripheral Nerve Stimulation
Neuropathic pain is defined as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling that associated with, actual or potential tissue damage” by the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP). Peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS) is rapidly increasing in use. This interventional pain treatment modality involves modulating peripheral nerves for a variety of chronic pain conditions. 
  • 913
  • 28 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Microbiota/Microbiome and the Gut–Brain Axis
The human gut microbiota, mainly consisting of Proteobacterias, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes, changes during the course of life, as it is constantly influenced by several individual factors, such as the type of birth, infections, therapies, diet, smoking, physical activity, stressful events, environmental factors and medical diseases. It is also worth highlighting that the brain’s development, depending on pre- and post-natal genetic and environmental factors, occurs in parallel with the constitution of the microbiota. A newborn’s microbiota has a low density but, as the individual grows, it is enriched with certain microorganisms, becoming increasingly capable of activating signals and metabolic pathways that modulate neuronal function.
  • 912
  • 05 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Biomarkers in Neuropsychiatric Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Nervous system involvement in patients with SLE, termed neuropsychiatric SLE (NPSLE), constitutes a diagnostic challenge, and its management is still poorly optimised. Emerging diagnostic biomarkers in NPSLE that displayed satisfactory ability to discriminate between NPSLE and controls include serum interleukin (IL)-6, microRNA (miR)-23a, miR-155, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) α-Klotho. CSF lipocalin-2, macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), and immunoglobulin (Ig)M also displayed such ability in two ethnically diverse cohorts. Serum interferon (IFN)-α and neuron specific enolase (NSE) were recently reported to moderately correlate with disease activity in patients with active NPSLE. CSF IL-8, IL-13, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) exhibited excellent sensitivity, yet poorer specificity, as predictors of response to therapy in patients with NPSLE. 
  • 912
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Ticagrelor Resistance in Cardiovascular Disease and Ischemic Stroke
Ticagrelor, acting as a reversible platelet aggregation inhibitor of P2Y12 receptors (P2Y12R), is regarded as one of the first-line antiplatelet drugs for acute cardiovascular diseases. Though the probability of ticagrelor resistance is much lower than that of clopidogrel, there have been recent reports of ticagrelor resistance.
  • 912
  • 13 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Role of Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles in Neurodegenerative Disease
Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles (BEVs) possess the capability of intracellular interactions with other cells, and, hence, can be utilized as an efficient cargo for worldwide delivery of therapeutic substances such as monoclonal antibodies, proteins, plasmids, siRNA, and small molecules for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). BEVs additionally possess a remarkable capacity for delivering these therapeutics across the blood–brain barrier to treat Alzheimer’s disease (AD).
  • 909
  • 26 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Neuroinflammatory Pathways in the Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis-FTD Continuum
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) and Frontotemporal dementia (FDT) are progressive neurodegenerative disorders that, in several cases, overlap in clinical presentation, and genetic and pathological disease mechanisms. About 10–15% of ALS cases and up to 40% of FTD are familial, usually with dominant traits. ALS and FTD, in several cases, share common gene mutations, such as in C9ORF72, TARDBP, SQSTM-1, FUS, VCP, CHCHD10, and TBK-1. 
  • 908
  • 30 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Bioprinting of Hydrogel-Based Drug Delivery Systems
Globally, thousands of people are affected by severe nerve injuries or neurodegenerative disorders. These conditions cannot always be cured because nerve tissue either does not regenerate or does so at a slow rate. Therefore, tissue engineering has emerged as a potential treatment approach. The combination of bioprinting, hydrogels, and drug delivery effectively addresses key issues in nerve tissue regeneration.
  • 908
  • 28 Feb 2024
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Traumatic Optic Neuropathy: Update on Management
Traumatic optic neuropathy is one of the causes of visual loss caused by blunt or penetrating head trauma and is classified as both direct and indirect. Clinical history and examination findings usually allow for the diagnosis of traumatic optic neuropathy. There is still controversy surrounding the management of traumatic optic neuropathy; some physicians advocate observation alone, while others recommend steroid therapy, surgery, or both. In this entry, researchers tried to highlight traumatic optic neuropathy’s main pathophysiologic mechanisms with the most available updated treatment. Recent research suggests future therapies that may be helpful in traumatic optic neuropathy cases.
  • 905
  • 13 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Genetic and Metabolic Investigations in Children with GDD/ID
Global Developmental Delay (GDD) and Intellectual Disability (ID) are two of the most common presentations encountered by physicians taking care of children. GDD/ID is classified into non-syndromic GDD/ID, where GDD/ID is the sole evident clinical feature, or syndromic GDD/ID, where there are additional clinical features or co-morbidities present. Careful evaluation of children with GDD and ID, starting with detailed history followed by a thorough examination, remain the cornerstone for etiologic diagnosis, however, when initial history and examination fail to identify a probable underlying etiology, further genetic testing is warranted.
  • 905
  • 12 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Microglia and Alzheimer’s Disease
Microglia play a critical role in both homeostasis and disease, displaying a wide variety in terms of density, functional markers and transcriptomic profiles along the different brain regions as well as under injury or pathological conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The generation of reliable models to study into a dysfunctional microglia context could provide new knowledge towards the contribution of these cells in AD. In this work, we included an overview of different microglial depletion approaches. We also reported unpublished data from our genetic microglial depletion model, Cx3cr1CreER/Csf1rflx/flx, in which we temporally controlled microglia depletion by either intraperitoneal (acute model) or oral (chronic model) tamoxifen administration. Our results reported a clear microglial repopulation, then pointing out that our model would mimic a context of microglial replacement instead of microglial dysfunction. Next, we evaluated the origin and pattern of microglial repopulation. Additionally, we also reviewed previous works assessing the effects of microglial depletion in the progression of Aβ and Tau pathologies, where controversial data are found, probably due to the heterogeneous and time-varying microglial phenotypes observed in AD. Despite that, microglial depletion represents a promising tool to assess microglial role in AD and design therapeutic strategies
  • 904
  • 09 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Economic Recessions and Mental Health
In the wake of a global economic recession secondary to the COVID-19 pandemic, this entry seeks to summarize the current quantitative research on the impact of economic recessions on depression, anxiety, traumatic disorders, self-harm, and suicide. 
  • 903
  • 09 Sep 2021
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