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Topic Review
Teaching Geology in Higher Education Institutions under COVID-19
Teaching geology under COVID-19 pandemic conditions led to teaching limitations for educators and learning difficulties for students. The lockdown obstructed face-to-face teaching, laboratory work, and fieldtrips. To minimize the impact of this situation, new distance learning teaching methods and tools were developed. The current study presents the results of an empirical study, where distance learning teaching tools were constructed and used to teach geology to university students. A mineralogical mobile phone application was used to replace laboratory mineral identification and a flow chart to replace laboratory rock identification. Additionally, exercises on faults and maps were developed to fill the gap that was created as field work was impossible. A university course on geology was designed on the basis of the constructed distance learning teaching tools, and more than 100 students from the Department of Civil Engineering attended the course. The results show that the proposed tools helped the students to considerably understand scientific information on geology and supported the learning outcomes. Thus, it is suggested that the teaching tools, constructed for the purposes of the study, could be used in conditions when distance learning is required, or even under typical learning conditions after laboratories, as well as before or after fieldtrips, for better learning outcomes.
  • 12
  • 12 Mar 2026
Topic Review
Educational Attainment
Educational attainment is the highest level of formal education successfully completed by an individual or group, typically indicated by credentials such as certificates, diplomas, or degrees, and sometimes by years of schooling [1][2][3][4]. It refers to the cumulative outcome of participation and progression in education systems—across primary, secondary, and tertiary levels—and is recorded using standardized categories (e.g., upper‑secondary completion, bachelor’s degree, postgraduate qualification) [1][2]. Educational attainment is characterized by its role as a structural indicator of educational success over the life course, distinguishing completion of recognised programmes from partial participation or non‑completion, and is widely used in analyses of social mobility, labour‑market outcomes, health, and inequality [2][3][4]. Within educational research and policy, educational attainment denotes a core measure of human capital and educational opportunity, where distributions and gaps in attainment across demographic or socio‑economic groups are examined to assess the fairness and effectiveness of education systems and related policies [1][2][3][4].
  • 12
  • 11 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Educational Achievement
Educational achievement is the level of learning outcomes that individuals or groups attain in relation to specified educational goals, typically reflected in indicators such as test scores, grades, course completions, and qualifications earned [1][2][3]. It refers to measurable academic performance within subjects or programmes—such as literacy, numeracy, science, or overall school attainment—and is assessed against established standards or expectations for a given age, grade, or level of education [1][2]. Educational achievement is characterized by its focus on demonstrable cognitive and academic results, distinguishing it from broader educational experiences or non‑academic competencies, and is commonly analysed in relation to factors such as instructional practices, school resources, family background, motivation, and prior attainment [2][3]. Within educational research and policy, educational achievement denotes a central outcome dimension used to evaluate the effectiveness and equity of education systems, where disparities in achievement across student groups, schools, or regions are treated as indicators of differential opportunity and performance [1][2][3].
  • 11
  • 11 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Community-Based Education
Community-based education is an educational approach in which structured learning activities are intentionally situated within, and developed in collaboration with, community settings and organizations, rather than being confined to institutional environments alone [1][2][3][4]. It refers to programs where learners engage in planned educational experiences—such as service, projects, clinical or field placements, and participatory research—within communities, so that local contexts, resources, and stakeholders form an integral part of the curriculum and instructional design [1][2]. Community-based education is characterized by sustained, curricular integration of community sites as learning environments, with defined educational objectives, supervision, and assessment that link community experiences to disciplinary knowledge and professional or civic competencies [2][3]. Within professional and general education, community-based education denotes a specific orientation in which the community is treated as a formal locus of teaching and learning, developed through partnerships with community members and institutions, and distinguished from occasional outreach or volunteer activities that are not embedded in educational programs [1][2][3][4].
  • 10
  • 11 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Audiovisual Education
Audiovisual education is an educational approach in which teaching and learning are intentionally supported through combined visual and auditory media, such as video, animation, narrated presentations, film, sound recordings, and interactive multimedia [1][2][3][4]. It refers to the structured pedagogical use of these media to present content, guide attention, improve comprehension, and support memory through coordinated image–sound processing rather than text-only or speech-only delivery [1][2]. Audiovisual education is characterized by planned instructional design (e.g., sequencing, signaling, pacing, and narration quality), alignment with learning objectives, and integration into formal learning activities and assessment [2][3][4]. In this sense, it is not merely showing media in class, but using audiovisual communication as a systematic instructional mode to facilitate understanding and learning performance [1][2][3][4].
  • 10
  • 15 Sep 2026
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Family Life Education—A Transdisciplinary Model Sustained by Simplicity
Family life education (FLE) is a social support and educational practice that encompasses all efforts to equip individuals, families, or community members with information, resources, skills, and examples of best practices to ensure the healthy functioning of families and prevent or minimize problems. It is grounded in social science, specifically family sciences, but evidence-based research exists in multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary studies across many other domains. Family life educators are professional helpers who focus on supporting, educating, and teaching the community to empower families and improve the quality of personal and family life. Studies state that FLE is a transdisciplinary or global field, it should sustain the quality of families’ lives: subjective well-being, optimism, health, and standard of living, while reducing aspects of family deprivation and maintaining a work–life balance. FLE should integrate educational knowledge and practices for a simple way of living in families and society.
  • 10
  • 17 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Education Discourse
Education discourse is the ensemble of spoken, written, and multimodal forms of language through which educational ideas, policies, practices, identities, and values are produced, represented, and negotiated in specific social and institutional contexts [1][2][3][4]. It refers to patterned ways of talking and writing about education—such as policy texts, curricula, research articles, media coverage, classroom talk, and textbook narratives—that shape how educational problems are defined, what goals are prioritized, and which roles are assigned to learners, teachers, and institutions [1][2]. Education discourse is characterized by recurring concepts, metaphors, framings, and argument structures that constitute and legitimize particular understandings of schooling, learning, and educational change, while marginalizing or excluding others [2][3][4]. Within educational research and policy analysis, education discourse denotes the field of inquiry that examines these language practices as social and ideological phenomena, treating discourse not simply as communication about education but as a structuring force that influences educational decision-making, classroom interaction, and the wider public perception of education [1][2][3][4].
  • 9
  • 11 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Educational Access
Educational access is the condition in which individuals or groups have the effective opportunity to enter, participate in, and benefit from education at different levels and types of provision, without unjustifiable barriers related to cost, location, timing, social status, or other contextual factors [1][2][3][4]. It refers to the availability and reach of educational opportunities—such as schools, programmes, and learning resources—together with the practical and normative conditions that enable learners to enrol, attend, and progress, including legal entitlements, admission policies, physical and digital infrastructure, and support services [1][2]. Educational access is characterized by dimensions such as physical access (proximity and facilities), economic access (affordability), social and cultural access (non‑discrimination, language, and inclusion), and informational access (awareness of opportunities), which jointly determine who can realistically participate in education [2][3][4]. Within equity‑focused educational research and policy, educational access denotes the aspect of educational justice concerned with ensuring that all individuals, particularly those from vulnerable or marginalized groups, can enter and remain in education under fair conditions, distinguishing access from subsequent issues of quality, achievement, and outcomes [1][2][3][4].
  • 9
  • 11 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Cultural Education
Cultural education is a field of education in which teaching and learning are systematically directed toward the understanding, appreciation, and critical interpretation of cultural expressions, practices, and heritage within their social and historical contexts [1][2][3][4]. It involves structured curricular and co‑curricular activities that explicitly address elements such as cultural heritage, the arts, languages, traditions, and symbolic representations, and that are designed to develop learners’ cultural knowledge, awareness, and interpretive skills [1][2]. Cultural education is characterized by the intentional use of cultural content and experiences—such as artistic works, heritage resources, and intercultural encounters—as organized learning resources for fostering cultural awareness, intercultural sensitivity, and the ability to relate one’s own cultural background to that of others [2][3][4]. Within broader educational programs, cultural education denotes the set of educational goals, contents, and pedagogical approaches that focus explicitly on culture and cultural diversity, rather than treating these aspects as incidental or purely illustrative material.
  • 8
  • 11 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Massification of Education
Massification of education refers to the historical and policy-driven process through which education systems expand from serving limited social groups to enrolling increasingly large proportions of the population, especially at secondary and tertiary levels [1][2][3]. It involves rapid growth in participation, institutional capacity, and credential attainment, often supported by state policy, public financing, and diversification of educational providers [1][2]. Massification is characterized by widened access and social inclusion alongside structural challenges such as resource pressure, stratification across institutions, and concerns about quality, equity, and graduate outcomes. In educational analysis, the term denotes system-level expansion in scale and participation, distinct from universalization as a normative goal and from simple enrollment growth without broader structural transformation [1][2][3].
  • 8
  • 17 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Undergraduate Education
Undergraduate education is the first level of higher education completed after secondary schooling, typically leading to a bachelor’s degree or equivalent qualification [1][2][3][4]. It provides broad and disciplinary learning through structured coursework, academic advising, assessment, and, in many programs, research, practical training, or community-based experiences. Undergraduate education is characterized by progressive development of subject knowledge, academic skills, critical thinking, communication, and professional readiness over a defined program duration [1][2]. In policy and research contexts, the term refers specifically to tertiary education at the pre-master’s level, distinguishing it from both postsecondary non-degree training and graduate education [2][3][4].
  • 8
  • 18 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Digital Education
Digital education is an educational approach in which teaching, learning, and assessment processes are designed and delivered using digital technologies and networked environments as core components of the instructional system [1][2][3][4]. It encompasses technology-mediated formats such as online courses, blended learning, virtual classrooms, and the use of digital platforms, tools, and resources to organize content, interactions, and feedback [1][2]. Digital education is characterized by the systematic integration of information and communication technologies into curricula and pedagogical practices, so that access to materials, communication between learners and teachers, and monitoring of learning progress are supported through digital infrastructures rather than exclusively through face‑to‑face arrangements [2][3]. Within this framework, digital education denotes a structured use of digital media and environments as primary channels for educational delivery and coordination, distinguishing it from occasional or supplementary use of technology that does not fundamentally shape the organization of teaching and learning [1][2][3][4].
  • 7
  • 11 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Educational Assessment
Educational assessment is the systematic process of collecting, interpreting, and using information about learners’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and performance to judge the extent to which educational goals and standards are being achieved [1][2][3][4]. It includes a range of methods and tools—such as tests, assignments, projects, observations, portfolios, and performance tasks—applied in classroom, programme, or system-level contexts to generate evidence about learning and instructional effectiveness [1][2]. Educational assessment is characterized by explicit criteria, planned procedures, and documented results that support decisions about grading, feedback, instructional adjustment, certification, and accountability, distinguishing it from informal impressions or unsystematic observation [2][3][4]. Within educational practice and research, educational assessment denotes the domain concerned with designing, implementing, and evaluating assessment strategies (including formative, summative, diagnostic, and large-scale assessments) so that the resulting information is valid, reliable, fair, and useful for improving teaching and learning [1][2][3][4].
  • 7
  • 11 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Workforce Education
Workforce education is a structured educational and training domain that prepares individuals for labor-market participation, job transition, and career progression through occupation-relevant knowledge, technical skills, and transferable competencies [1][2][3][4]. It includes formal and non-formal pathways such as vocational programs, short-cycle tertiary routes, and work-integrated learning that are aligned with employment needs and evolving skill demand. Workforce education is characterized by competency-oriented curriculum design, linkage between education and work contexts, and emphasis on employability, adaptability, and lifelong upskilling/reskilling [2][3][4]. In research and policy analysis, the term denotes education explicitly oriented to workforce outcomes, distinguishing it from general education models without direct labor-market alignment.
  • 7
  • 18 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Female Education
Female education refers to the organized provision of learning opportunities for girls and women across all levels of formal, non-formal, and lifelong education, including access, participation, progression, and completion under equitable conditions [1][2][3][4]. It encompasses policies and practices aimed at ensuring that female learners can enroll, attend, and achieve in education without barriers related to gender norms, discrimination, safety, economic constraints, or unequal household and social expectations [1][2]. Female education is characterized by attention to gender-specific constraints and supports, such as safe schooling environments, retention measures, transitions between levels, and equal access to curriculum pathways and credentials [2][3][4]. In research and policy, the term denotes both the educational status of female populations and the institutional arrangements designed to secure their equal educational rights and opportunities [1][2][3][4].
  • 6
  • 16 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Government Education
Government education expenditure refers to public-sector spending allocated to the provision, administration, and support of education by national, regional, or local authorities [1][2][3][4]. It includes current and capital outlays for items such as personnel compensation, school operations, infrastructure, learning materials, student support, and system governance across pre-primary, primary, secondary, and tertiary levels [1][2]. Government education expenditure is characterized by budgetary allocation through public finance systems and is commonly measured as a share of total government expenditure, gross domestic product, or per-student spending [2][3][4]. In policy and research contexts, the term denotes the fiscal commitment of governments to education and is used to analyze adequacy, efficiency, and equity of public investment in learning opportunities and system performance [1][2][3][4].
  • 6
  • 16 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Indigenous Education
Indigenous education refers to educational provision, knowledge transmission, and learning processes that are grounded in Indigenous peoples’ languages, cultures, epistemologies, histories, and community priorities, while also engaging with formal education systems [1][2][3][4]. It includes both community-led and state-supported educational arrangements that aim to ensure equitable access, meaningful participation, and culturally sustaining learning for Indigenous learners [1][2]. Indigenous education is characterized by recognition of Indigenous knowledge systems, respect for cultural identity, inclusion of Indigenous languages, and pedagogical approaches shaped by relationships to land, community, and intergenerational knowledge [2][3][4]. In policy and research contexts, the term denotes a rights-based and culturally responsive educational domain, distinct from mainstream education models that do not systematically integrate Indigenous perspectives, governance, and self-determination [1][2][3][4].
  • 6
  • 16 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Language Minority Education
Language minority education refers to educational provision designed for learners whose home or primary language differs from the dominant language of schooling, with the aim of ensuring equitable access to curriculum, participation, and academic development [1][2][3][4]. It includes policies, programs, and pedagogical approaches that address language-related barriers through models such as bilingual education, dual-language programs, heritage-language support, and second-language instructional pathways [1][2]. Language minority education is characterized by attention to linguistic rights, additive language development, and the relationship between language proficiency and educational achievement [2][3][4]. In research and policy contexts, the term denotes a distinct educational domain focused on students from non-dominant language backgrounds, rather than general language teaching that does not specifically address minority-language learners’ access and equity conditions [1][2][3][4].
  • 6
  • 17 Sep 2026
Topic Review
Population Education
Population education is a structured educational process that develops learners’ understanding of demographic processes and their social, economic, environmental, and health implications [1][2][3]. It includes planned learning on population growth, fertility, mortality, migration, age structure, and population distribution, together with their relationships to resources, quality of life, and sustainable development [2]. Population education is characterized by interdisciplinary analysis, evidence-based interpretation of population data, and support for informed and responsible decision-making at individual and societal levels [3]. In educational contexts, the term denotes purposeful instruction for population literacy, rather than isolated presentation of demographic statistics without contextual understanding or application [1][2][3].
  • 6
  • 18 Sep 2026
Topic Review
STEAM Education
STEAM education is an interdisciplinary educational approach that integrates science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics into connected learning experiences centered on inquiry, design, creativity, and problem solving [1][2][3][4][5]. Rather than teaching each subject in isolation, STEAM education organizes curriculum around authentic questions or projects that require learners to apply concepts and methods from multiple disciplines [1][2]. A defining feature is the inclusion of the arts (e.g., design, visual communication, creativity, aesthetics, and human-centered thinking) to broaden STEM learning and support innovation, engagement, and meaning-making [2][3][4]. In educational research and practice, STEAM education is characterized by project-based and design-based pedagogies, collaboration, iterative prototyping, and performance-oriented assessment aligned with real-world contexts [3][4][5].
  • 6
  • 18 Sep 2026
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