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Topic Review
HIV-Associated Tuberculosis in Adolescents
Children and adolescents living with HIV continue to be impacted disproportionately by tuberculosis as compared to peers without HIV. HIV can impact tuberculosis (TB) screening and diagnosis by altering screening and diagnostic test performance and can complicate prevention and treatment strategies due to drug–drug interactions. Post-tuberculosis lung disease is an underappreciated phenomenon in children and adolescents, but is more commonly observed in children and adolescents with HIV-associated tuberculosis.
  • 388
  • 28 Feb 2022
Topic Review
Development of Nanovaccine against Toxoplasma gondii
Nanoparticles include particles ranging in size from nanometers to micrometers, whose physicochemical characteristics are optimized to make them appropriate delivery vehicles for drugs or immunogens important in the fight and/or prevention of infectious diseases. There has been a rise in the use of nanoparticles in preventive vaccine formulations as immunostimulatory adjuvants, and as vehicles for immunogen delivery to target immune cells. Toxoplasma is important worldwide, and may cause human toxoplasmosis. In immunocompetent hosts, infection is usually asymptomatic, but in immunocompromised patients it can cause serious neurological and ocular consequences, such as encephalitis and retinochoroiditis. Primary infection during pregnancy may cause abortion or congenital toxoplasmosis. There is no effective human vaccine against this disease. Evidence has emerged from several experimental studies testing nanovaccines showing them to be promising tools in the prevention of experimental toxoplasmosis.
  • 387
  • 16 May 2023
Topic Review
Implications of Flaviviruses Immunity on ZIKV Vaccine
The Zika virus (ZIKV) was first isolated from a rhesus macaque in the Zika forest of Uganda in 1947. Isolated cases were reported until 2007, when the first major outbreaks of Zika infection were reported from the Island of Yap in Micronesia and from French Polynesia in 2013. In 2015, ZIKV started to circulate in Latin America, and in 2016, ZIKV was considered by WHO to be a Public Health Emergency of International Concern due to cases of Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS), a ZIKV-associated complication never observed before. After a peak of cases in 2016, the infection incidence dropped dramatically but still causes concern because of the associated microcephaly cases, especially in regions where the dengue virus (DENV) is endemic and co-circulates with ZIKV. A vaccine could be an important tool to mitigate CZS in endemic countries. However, the immunological relationship between ZIKV and other flaviviruses, especially DENV, and the low numbers of ZIKV infections are potential challenges for developing and testing a vaccine against ZIKV.
  • 386
  • 02 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Bartonellosis
Bartonellosis is an infectious disease produced by bacteria of the genus Bartonella. Bartonella species cause diseases such as Carrión's disease, trench fever, cat-scratch disease, bacillary angiomatosis, peliosis hepatis, chronic bacteremia, endocarditis, chronic lymphadenopathy, and neurological disorders.
  • 386
  • 15 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Antimicrobial Stewardship in Emergency Department
Despite the demonstrated effectiveness of antimicrobial stewardship programs in antibiotic consumption and minimizing multi-drug-resistant bacterium development, the characteristics of emergency departments pose a challenge to their implementation. The inclusion of rapid diagnostic tests, tracking microbiological results upon discharge, conducting audits with feedback, and implementing multimodal educational interventions have proven to be effective tools for optimizing antibiotic use in these units.
  • 386
  • 18 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Reevaluating Therapeutic Use of Antibiotics in Liver Cirrhosis
Impairments in liver function lead to different complications. As chronic liver disease progresses (CLD), hypoalbuminemia and alterations in bile acid compositions lead to changes in gut microbiota and, therefore, in the host–microbiome interaction, leading to a proinflammatory state. Alterations in gut microbiota composition and permeability, known as gut dysbiosis, have important implications in CLD; alterations in the gut–liver axis are a consequence of liver disease, but also a cause of CLD. Furthermore, gut dysbiosis plays an important role in the progression of liver cirrhosis and decompensation, particularly with complications such as hepatic encephalopathy and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis.
  • 385
  • 26 Sep 2023
Topic Review
Area under the Concentration-Time Curve-Guided Dosing of Vancomycin
The area under the concentration-time curve (AUC)-guided dosing tended to more strongly decrease the risk of acute kidney injury (AKI) than trough-guided dosing, and a lower risk of treatment failure was demonstrated for higher AUC/minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ratios (cut-off of 400). Higher AUCs (cut-off of 600 μg·h/mL) significantly increased the risk of AKI. Although Bayesian estimation with two-point measurement was recommended, the trough concentration alone may be used in patients with mild infections in whom vancomycin (VCM) was administered with q12h. To increase the concentration on days 1–2, the routine use of a loading dose is required. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) on day 2 before steady state is reached should be considered to optimize the dose in patients with serious infections and a high risk of AKI. 
  • 382
  • 28 Mar 2022
Topic Review
The General Endocrine Picture of COVID-19 Infection
From an endocrinological point of view, a high risk of severe COVID-19 infection is related to the presence of diabetes mellitus, high blood pressure, obesity, Cushing’s syndrome, sleep apnea (associated with acromegaly or obesity), coagulation anomalies, glucocorticoid therapy for various conditions, etc.. Hypocortisolemia may develop on immune grounds (in addition or not to primary/secondary hypothyroidism) due to direct or immune-mediated pituitary and adrenal lesions.
  • 382
  • 28 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Role of β-Lactams in Management of Anaerobic Infections
Anaerobic bacteria are normal inhabitants of the human commensal microbiota and play an important role in various human infections. β-lactam antibiotics are considered one of the drugs of choice in the management of anaerobic infections. This is due to their broad spectrum of activity, low toxicity, and continued efficacy against almost all anaerobic species, especially when used in combination with β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitors (BL/BLI) or carbapenems.
  • 382
  • 23 Aug 2023
Topic Review
Dermatophyte Infections Worldwide
The increase in the incidence of superficial fungal infections combined with the emergence of antifungal resistance represents both a global health challenge and a considerable economic burden. Dermatophytes, the main culprit causing superficial fungal infections, have started to exhibit antifungal resistance. This can be observed in some of the most common species, such as Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Importantly, the new subspecies, known as Trichophyton indotineae, has been reported to show high resistance to terbinafine, a first-line treatment for dermatophyte infections. Compounding these issues is the realization that diagnosing the causative infectious agents requires using molecular analysis that goes beyond the conventional macroscopic and microscopic methods. 
  • 381
  • 09 Jan 2024
Topic Review
Role of Deep Learning Applications in Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance (AR) is a naturally occurring phenomenon consisting mostly of acquired adaptative mechanisms. Antibiotic development faces economical and technical difficulties, with increased costs of research and marketing new antibiotics being some of the economic hardships. Technical difficulties include lack of equipment, infrastructure, and trained personnel in some regions. To overcome AR, international programs should be created and enforced globally. Such programs are currently developed with the aid of deep learning (DL)-constructed computer systems. DL is a subtype of machine learning (ML) that utilizes artificial neural networks (ANN). Every ANN consists of multitudinous interconnected neurons, grouped into layers, having similar functionality to biological neurons. They receive an input, process the data, and generate an output signal. In the beginning, the program’s generated predictions will be highly inaccurate. The parameters linking the neural networks (NN), namely the weights and biases, are thus far unrefined to form an appropriate processing pathway. However, the neural network architecture constantly evolves to form the correct pattern recognition.
  • 380
  • 19 Jun 2023
Topic Review
CD8+ T Cells in Response to mRNA Vaccination
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a respiratory disease caused by the novel coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which has led to millions of deaths globally. The rollout of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines has effectively reduced the morbidity and mortality of COVID-19, with messenger RNA (mRNA)-based vaccines being widely administrated. While neutralizing antibodies are crucial, CD8+ T cells induced by the vaccine may also play a significant role in early and long-term protection. 
  • 380
  • 31 Jul 2023
Topic Review
Treatment for Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a ubiquitous Gram-negative bacterium renowned for its resilience and adaptability across diverse environments, including clinical settings, where it emerges as a formidable pathogen. Notorious for causing nosocomial infections, P. aeruginosa presents a significant challenge due to its intrinsic and acquired resistance mechanisms.
  • 377
  • 15 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Three-Dimensional Cultures in Fungal Pathogenesis
Three-dimensional (3D) cultures are pivotal in vitro studies as an alternative model that curtails research expenses. Three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures are extensively employed for novel drug screening of antifungals. Several advantages are tied to obtaining more precise toxicity and efficacy results than in vivo models, along with host–pathogen interactions closely mimicking reality.
  • 376
  • 12 Oct 2023
Topic Review
Microscopy Diagnosis of Trichomoniasis
More than one million curable sexually transmitted infections occur every day. Trichomonas vaginalis is one of the main infections responsible for these epidemiological data. The diagnosis of this protozoan is mainly based on microscopic and culture identification. 
  • 375
  • 15 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Isoniazid Preventive Therapy for Tuberculosis among HIV Patients
Tuberculosis (TB) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in people living with HIV (PLWHIV). Isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) prevents TB in PLWHIV, but estimates of its effects and actual implementation vary across countries. PLHIV who were on IPT, independently or simultaneously with ART, were less likely to develop TB than those without IPT. IPT interventions had a significant association with improved CD4 count and reduced all-cause mortality. IPT was less effective in people with advanced HIV infection. The major factors influencing IPT implementation and uptake were stock-outs, fear of developing isoniazid-resistant TB, patient’s refusal and non-adherence, and improper counseling and low commitment of HIV clinical care providers. IPT alone or in combination with ART significantly reduces the incidence of TB and mortality in PLHIV in Ethiopia than those without IPT. More research on safety is needed, especially on women with HIV who receive a combination of IPT and ART. 
  • 374
  • 19 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Nanotechnology in the Eradication of Foodborne Bacterial Biofilms
Biofilms enable pathogenic bacteria to survive in unfavorable environments. As biofilm-forming pathogens can cause rapid food spoilage and recurrent infections in humans, especially their presence in the food industry is problematic. Using chemical disinfectants in the food industry to prevent biofilm formation raises serious health concerns. Further, the ability of biofilm-forming bacterial pathogens to tolerate disinfection procedures questions the traditional treatment methods. Thus, there is a dire need for alternative treatment options targeting bacterial pathogens, especially biofilms. As clean-label products without carcinogenic and hazardous potential, natural compounds with growth and biofilm-inhibiting and biofilm-eradicating potentials have gained popularity as natural preservatives in the food industry. However, the use of these natural preservatives in the food industry is restricted by their poor availability, stability during food processing and storage. Also there is a lack of standardization, and unattractive organoleptic qualities. Nanotechnology is one way to get around these limitations and as well as the use of underutilized bioactives. The use of nanotechnology has several advantages including traversing the biofilm matrix, targeted drug delivery, controlled release, and enhanced bioavailability, bioactivity, and stability. The nanoparticles used in fabricating or encapsulating natural products are considered as an appealing antibiofilm strategy since the nanoparticles enhance the activity of the natural products against biofilms of foodborne bacterial pathogens. 
  • 374
  • 16 Feb 2023
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 Pathogenesis and Treatment of COVID-19
The Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has significantly impacted the health and socioeconomic status of humans worldwide. Pulmonary infection of SARS-CoV-2 results in exorbitant viral replication and associated onset of inflammatory cytokine storm and disease pathology in various internal organs. At present, the pathological manifestations of acute and long-term COVID-19 and the underlying pathogenesis is not fully understood. Although currently used mRNA vaccines help to reduce the death among COVID cases, the protective effect is not long-lasting. Similarly, there is no targeted therapy available currently to cure COVID-19. Therefore, additional studies to understand the host-pathogen interactions are urgently needed to develop improved vaccines and therapeutic interventions to combat the current global COVID-19 pandemic.
  • 374
  • 10 Nov 2023
Topic Review
Super-Spreader
A super-spreader is a host—an organism infected with a disease—that disproportionally infects more secondary contacts than other hosts who are also infected with the same disease. A sick human can be a super-spreader; they would be more likely to infect others than most people with the disease. Super-spreaders are thus of high concern in epidemiology (the study of the spread of diseases). Some cases of super-spreading conform to the 20/80 rule, where approximately 20% of infected individuals are responsible for 80% of transmissions, although super-spreading can still be said to occur when super-spreaders account for a higher or lower percentage of transmissions. In epidemics with super-spreading, the majority of individuals infect relatively few secondary contacts. Super-spreading events are shaped by multiple factors including a decline in herd immunity, nosocomial infections, virulence, viral load, misdiagnosis, airflow dynamics, immune suppression, and co-infection with another pathogen.
  • 373
  • 25 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Treatment of Opisthorchis viverrini
Opisthorchiasis due to Opisthorchis viverrini infection continues to be a significant public healthcare concern in various subregions of Southeast Asia, particularly in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam. The mainstay of treatment of opisthorchiasis is praziquantel, while treatment of opisthorchiasis-associated cholangiocarcinoma depends on its anatomic subtype and resectability.
  • 370
  • 12 Jun 2023
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