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Topic Review
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is one of the most common human virus; it belongs to the Herpes virus family and is also known as Herpes virus 4. EBV is ubiquitous and is transmitted through saliva. Most individuals develop the infection during childhood or adolescence and the infection generally remains clinically silent; when primary infection is symptomatic usually follows a self-limited course manifesting as infectious mononucleosis (IM).
  • 840
  • 15 Oct 2021
Topic Review
CRISPR/Cas Technique for Emerging Viral Disease
Viral diseases have emerged as a serious threat to humanity and as a leading cause of morbidity worldwide. Many viral diagnostic methods and antiviral therapies have been developed over time, but there is a long way from treating certain infections caused by viruses. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is one of the challenges where current medical science advancements fall short. As a result, new diagnostic and treatment options are desperately needed. The CRISPR/Cas9 system has been proposed as a potential therapeutic approach for viral disease treatment. CRISPR/Cas9 is a specialised, effective, and adaptive gene-editing technique that can be used to modify, delete, or correct specific DNA sequences. It has evolved into an advanced, configurable nuclease-based single or multiple gene-editing tool with a wide range of applications. It is widely preferred simply because its operational procedures are simple, inexpensive, and extremely efficient. Exploration of infectious virus genomes is required for a comprehensive study of infectious viruses. 
  • 838
  • 11 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Toscana virus NSs protein stability
The non-structural protein NSs of the Phenuiviridae family members appears to have a role in the host immunity escape. Toscana virus NSs protein exerts its inhibitory function by triggering RIG-I for proteasomal degradation, confirming the interaction between the ubiquitin system and TOSV NSs. The mass spectrometry analysis of TOSV NSs allowed the direct identification of lysine residues targeted for ubiquitination. Moreover, analysis of NSs K-mutants confirmed the presence and the important role of lysine residues located in the central and the C-terminal parts of the protein in controlling the NSs cellular level. Therefore, we directly demonstrated a new cellular pathway involved in controlling TOSV NSs fate and activity, and this opens the way to new investigations among more pathogenic viruses of the Phenuiviridae family.
  • 835
  • 15 Jan 2021
Topic Review
Diverse Manifestations of COVID-19
This entry aims to identify suggested mechanisms of diverse manifestations of COVID-19. Studies suggest that T cell-mediated immunity and specific and/or nonspecific immunity from other vaccines could protect against SARS-CoV-2. The potential role of cross-reacting antibodies to coronaviruses that cause the common cold, mumps virus, polio virus, and pneumococcal bacteria are also suggested to help protect against COVID-19.
  • 831
  • 08 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Nucleic Acid-Based Therapies in SARS-CoV-2
SARS-CoV-2 is a coronavirus family member that appeared in China in December 2019 and caused the disease called COVID-19, which was declared a pandemic in 2020 by the World Health Organization. Concerning nucleic acid-based therapy, RNA therapy has shown promising results in treating several human malignances, including viral diseases. There are different approaches to targeting RNA in the human body: small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), and CRISPR/Cas systems, among others. 
  • 831
  • 30 Sep 2022
Topic Review
Oncolytic Viruses and ICI
Immuno-oncology (IO) has been an active area of oncology research. Following US FDA approval of the first immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI), ipilimumab (human IgG1 k anti-CTLA-4 monoclonal antibody), in 2011, and of the first oncolytic virus, Imlygic (talimogene laherparepvec), in 2015, there has been renewed interest in IO. In the past decade, ICIs have changed the treatment paradigm for many cancers by enabling better therapeutic control, resuming immune surveillance, suppressing tumor immunosuppression, and restoring antitumor immune function. However, ICI therapies are effective only in a small subset of patients and show limited therapeutic potential due to their inability to demonstrate efficacy in "cold" or unresponsive tumor microenvironments (TMEs). Relatedly, oncolytic viruses (OVs) have been shown to induce antitumor immune responses, augment the efficacy of existing cancer treatments, and reform unresponsive TME to turn "cold" tumors "hot," increasing their susceptibility to checkpoint blockade immunotherapies. For this reason, OVs serve as ideal complements to ICIs, and multiple preclinical studies and clinical trials are demonstrating their combined therapeutic efficacy. 
  • 830
  • 26 Dec 2020
Topic Review
Structural, Functional Changes by SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Mutations
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, has sparked intense research on its spike protein, which is essential for viral entrance into host cells. Viral reproduction and transmission, host immune response regulation, receptor recognition and host cell entrance mechanisms, as well as structural and functional effects have all been linked to mutations in the spike protein. Spike protein mutations can also result in immune evasion mechanisms that impair vaccine effectiveness and escape, and they are linked to illness severity and clinical consequences. 
  • 828
  • 01 Dec 2023
Topic Review
Interferon-Stimulated Genes as Influenza Virus Host Restriction Factors
Influenza virus exploits host factors to promote each step of its lifecycle. In turn, the host deploys antiviral or restriction factors that inhibit or restrict the influenza virus lifecycle at each of those steps. Two broad categories of host restriction factors can exist in virus-infected cells: (1) encoded by the interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) and (2) encoded by the constitutively expressed genes that are not stimulated by interferons (non-ISGs). There are hundreds of ISGs known, and many, e.g., Mx, IFITMs, and TRIMs, have been characterized to restrict influenza virus infection at different stages of its lifecycle, by (1) blocking viral entry or progeny release, (2) sequestering or degrading viral components and interfering with viral synthesis and assembly, or (3) bolstering host innate defenses. 
  • 828
  • 15 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Detecting Hepatitis E Virus in Pork Products
RTPCR assays have been used both qualitatively and quantitatively, although in the latter case the data acquired are only reliable if appropriate assay calibration has been performed. One particular RTPCR assay appears to be ideal for incorporation in a standard method, as it has been demonstrated to be highly specific and sensitive, and an appropriate control and calibration standard is available. The detection of HEV in pork products and similar foodstuffs (e.g., boar) may be useful to inform standardisation activities. 
  • 823
  • 22 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Alphaviruses in Immunotherapy and Anticancer Therapy
Alphaviruses have been engineered as expression vectors for vaccine development and gene therapy. Due to the feature of RNA self-replication, alphaviruses can provide exceptional direct cytoplasmic expression of transgenes based on the delivery of recombinant particles, naked or nanoparticle-encapsulated RNA or plasmid-based DNA replicons.
  • 821
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Antimicrobial Stewardship in Tropical Infectious Diseases
Acute undifferentiated febrile illness (AUFI) is a common presentation of tropical infections. Dengue is hyperendemic in tropical and subtropical countries, predominantly in urban and semi-urban areas. Dengue infection is the most common AUFI etiology in Bangkok, Thailand, accounting for 39.6% of non-malarial febrile cases from 2013 to 2015. Despite the global malaria recession, it remains the most common AUFI diagnosis in various countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, but was only observed at 1% in Southeast Asia. Distinguishing between tropical infection, such as dengue or malaria, and bacterial infection at the early presentation of AUFI is difficult. The non-specificity of symptoms and signs and lack of availability of diagnostic tests often result in irrational antibiotic use. Following the overuse of antibiotics, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a serious global public health threat.
  • 820
  • 24 Aug 2022
Topic Review
DNA Replicons and Infectious Diseases
DNA-based gene therapy and vaccine development have received plenty of attention lately. DNA replicons based on self-replicating RNA viruses such as alphaviruses and flaviviruses have been of particular interest due to the amplification of RNA transcripts leading to enhanced transgene expression in transfected host cells. Moreover, significantly reduced doses of DNA replicons compared to conventional DNA plasmids can elicit equivalent immune responses. DNA replicons have been evaluated in preclinical animal models for cancer immunotherapy and for vaccines against infectious diseases and various cancers. Strong immune responses and tumor regression have been obtained in rodent tumor models. Immunization with DNA replicons has provided robust immune responses and protection against challenges with pathogens and tumor cells. DNA replicon-based COVID-19 vaccines have shown positive results in preclinical animal models.
  • 819
  • 06 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Genetic Prion Disease
Genetic prion disease accounts for 10–15% of prion disease. While insertion of four or more octapeptide repeats are clearly pathogenic, smaller repeat insertions have an unclear pathogenicity.
  • 814
  • 19 Nov 2021
Topic Review
A Functional Minigenome of Parvovirus B19
Parvovirus B19 (B19V) is a human pathogenic virus of clinical relevance, characterized by a selective tropism for erythroid progenitor cells in bone marrow. Relevant information on viral characteristics and lifecycle can be obtained from experiments involving engineered genetic systems in appropriate in vitro cellular models. Previously, a B19V genome of defined consensus sequence was designed, synthesized and cloned in a complete and functional form, able to replicate and produce infectious viral particles in a producer/amplifier cell system.
  • 812
  • 17 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Papillomaviruses in Domestic Cats
Papillomaviruses (PVs) are well established to cause hyperplastic papillomas (warts) in humans and animals. In addition, due to their ability to alter cell regulation, PVs are also recognized to cause approximately 5% of human cancers and these viruses have been associated with neoplasia in a number of animal species. In contrast to other domestic species, cats have traditionally been thought to less frequently develop disease due to PV infection. However, in the last 15 years, the number of viruses and the different lesions associated with PVs in cats have greatly expanded.
  • 809
  • 24 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Autophagy in Virus Infection
Virus-infected cells trigger a robust innate immune response and facilitate virus replication. Autophagy is a cellular degradation pathway operated at the basal level to maintain homeostasis and is induced by external stimuli for specific functions. The degradative function of autophagy is considered a cellular anti-viral immune response. However, autophagy is a double-edged sword in viral infection; viruses often benefit from it, and the infected cells can also use it to inhibit viral replication. In addition to viral regulation, autophagy pathway proteins also function in autophagy-independent manners to regulate immune responses. Since viruses have co-evolved with hosts, they have developed ways to evade the anti-viral autophagic responses of the cells. 
  • 809
  • 17 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Zika Virus Pathogenesis
ZIKV (Zika virus) is a mosquito-borne, positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the family Flaviviridae (genus Flavivirus). ZIKV is further classified by homology to the Spondweni virus (SPONV) in the Spondweni viral clade or serogroup, both viruses were first characterized in Africa in 1947 and 1952, respectively.
  • 808
  • 23 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles and Viruses
Multicellular organisms rely on intercellular communication to regulate many aspects of their physiology. It defines environmental niches that regulate cell growth and behavior, and it is essential for collective defense against host pathogens. The majority of intercellular communication is mediated via the transportation of bioactive molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, metabolites and lipids between cells. Passage of these molecules can occur by passive diffusion or by transport via carrier molecules such as extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs are cell-secreted membrane vesicles of various sizes, compositions and origins that induce physiological changes in recipient cells through the delivery of bioactive molecules. The biomolecules contained within EVs vary depending on the tissue of origin, immune set-point and cellular context and web-based compendiums such as ExoCarta, Vesiclepedia and EVpedia are now used to document the vast array of biological molecules identified in EVs of different classes.
  • 808
  • 03 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Development of Zika Virus Vaccines
Zika virus (ZIKV) is an arbovirus first discovered in the Americas. ZIKV infection is insidious based on its mild clinical symptoms observed after infection. Currently, no specific prophylactics or therapeutics are clinically available to treat ZIKV infection. Development of a safe and effective vaccine is essential to prevent the rise of any potential pandemic.
  • 807
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Pseudo-Circular Genomes of Flaviviruses
The circularization of viral genomes fulfills various functions, from evading host defense mechanisms to promoting specific replication and translation patterns supporting viral proliferation. Here, this entry describes the genomic structures and associated host factors important for flaviviruses genome circularization and summarize their functional roles. Flaviviruses are relatively small, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses with genomes of approximately 11 kb in length. These genomes contain motifs at their 5′ and 3′ ends, as well as in other regions, that are involved in circularization. These motifs are highly conserved throughout the Flavivirus genus and occur both in mature virions and within infected cells.
  • 805
  • 07 Apr 2021
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