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Topic Review
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is one of the most common human virus; it belongs to the Herpes virus family and is also known as Herpes virus 4. EBV is ubiquitous and is transmitted through saliva. Most individuals develop the infection during childhood or adolescence and the infection generally remains clinically silent; when primary infection is symptomatic usually follows a self-limited course manifesting as infectious mononucleosis (IM).
  • 822
  • 15 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Strategies of Immune Evasion by SARS-CoV-2
There are at least seven reported strategies, which are utilized by SARS-CoV-2 for immune evasion: 1. Spike camouflage employs glycan molecules (epitope masking). 2. Differential impairment of MHC-I-mediated antigen presentation by SARS-CoV-2 variants. 3. SARS-CoV-2-driven inhibition of the interferon synthesis. 4. SARS-CoV-2 induces incomplete mitophagy to avoid apoptosis of some infected cells and to increase virus replication. 5. Cell–cell infection and immune evasion through cytoplasmic nanotubes. 6. Cell–cell infection and lymphocyte cell death through syncytia formation. 7. Immune evasion through exosome release.
  • 818
  • 17 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Detecting Hepatitis E Virus in Pork Products
RTPCR assays have been used both qualitatively and quantitatively, although in the latter case the data acquired are only reliable if appropriate assay calibration has been performed. One particular RTPCR assay appears to be ideal for incorporation in a standard method, as it has been demonstrated to be highly specific and sensitive, and an appropriate control and calibration standard is available. The detection of HEV in pork products and similar foodstuffs (e.g., boar) may be useful to inform standardisation activities. 
  • 816
  • 22 Mar 2022
Topic Review Peer Reviewed
Extracellular Vesicles and Immunomodulation in Mosquitoes and Ticks
Extracellular vesicles are small blebs that are secreted by cells, which are lipid-rich and contain proteomic and genomic material (including small RNAs, mRNA, and plasmid DNA). These materials are delivered into recipient cells leading to a phenotypic change. Recent studies have demonstrated the secretion of extracellular vesicles by mosquito and tick cells, as well as tick salivary glands. Further, these studies suggest vesicles play a role in the transmission of vector-borne pathogens, including viruses and bacteria, and are involved in the manipulation of wound healing and immune responses. Both of these processes are key in the host response to hematophagous arthropods’ feeding. The role of mosquito and tick EVs in the modulation of immune responses and pathogen transmission is discussed in this entry.
  • 816
  • 24 Apr 2022
Topic Review
A Functional Minigenome of Parvovirus B19
Parvovirus B19 (B19V) is a human pathogenic virus of clinical relevance, characterized by a selective tropism for erythroid progenitor cells in bone marrow. Relevant information on viral characteristics and lifecycle can be obtained from experiments involving engineered genetic systems in appropriate in vitro cellular models. Previously, a B19V genome of defined consensus sequence was designed, synthesized and cloned in a complete and functional form, able to replicate and produce infectious viral particles in a producer/amplifier cell system.
  • 809
  • 17 Jan 2022
Topic Review
Alphaviruses in Immunotherapy and Anticancer Therapy
Alphaviruses have been engineered as expression vectors for vaccine development and gene therapy. Due to the feature of RNA self-replication, alphaviruses can provide exceptional direct cytoplasmic expression of transgenes based on the delivery of recombinant particles, naked or nanoparticle-encapsulated RNA or plasmid-based DNA replicons.
  • 809
  • 19 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Diverse Manifestations of COVID-19
This entry aims to identify suggested mechanisms of diverse manifestations of COVID-19. Studies suggest that T cell-mediated immunity and specific and/or nonspecific immunity from other vaccines could protect against SARS-CoV-2. The potential role of cross-reacting antibodies to coronaviruses that cause the common cold, mumps virus, polio virus, and pneumococcal bacteria are also suggested to help protect against COVID-19.
  • 808
  • 08 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Genetic Prion Disease
Genetic prion disease accounts for 10–15% of prion disease. While insertion of four or more octapeptide repeats are clearly pathogenic, smaller repeat insertions have an unclear pathogenicity.
  • 808
  • 19 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Interferon-Stimulated Genes as Influenza Virus Host Restriction Factors
Influenza virus exploits host factors to promote each step of its lifecycle. In turn, the host deploys antiviral or restriction factors that inhibit or restrict the influenza virus lifecycle at each of those steps. Two broad categories of host restriction factors can exist in virus-infected cells: (1) encoded by the interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) and (2) encoded by the constitutively expressed genes that are not stimulated by interferons (non-ISGs). There are hundreds of ISGs known, and many, e.g., Mx, IFITMs, and TRIMs, have been characterized to restrict influenza virus infection at different stages of its lifecycle, by (1) blocking viral entry or progeny release, (2) sequestering or degrading viral components and interfering with viral synthesis and assembly, or (3) bolstering host innate defenses. 
  • 807
  • 15 Mar 2024
Topic Review
Zika Virus Pathogenesis
ZIKV (Zika virus) is a mosquito-borne, positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the family Flaviviridae (genus Flavivirus). ZIKV is further classified by homology to the Spondweni virus (SPONV) in the Spondweni viral clade or serogroup, both viruses were first characterized in Africa in 1947 and 1952, respectively.
  • 804
  • 23 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Extracellular Vesicles and Viruses
Multicellular organisms rely on intercellular communication to regulate many aspects of their physiology. It defines environmental niches that regulate cell growth and behavior, and it is essential for collective defense against host pathogens. The majority of intercellular communication is mediated via the transportation of bioactive molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, metabolites and lipids between cells. Passage of these molecules can occur by passive diffusion or by transport via carrier molecules such as extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs are cell-secreted membrane vesicles of various sizes, compositions and origins that induce physiological changes in recipient cells through the delivery of bioactive molecules. The biomolecules contained within EVs vary depending on the tissue of origin, immune set-point and cellular context and web-based compendiums such as ExoCarta, Vesiclepedia and EVpedia are now used to document the vast array of biological molecules identified in EVs of different classes.
  • 803
  • 03 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Pseudo-Circular Genomes of Flaviviruses
The circularization of viral genomes fulfills various functions, from evading host defense mechanisms to promoting specific replication and translation patterns supporting viral proliferation. Here, this entry describes the genomic structures and associated host factors important for flaviviruses genome circularization and summarize their functional roles. Flaviviruses are relatively small, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses with genomes of approximately 11 kb in length. These genomes contain motifs at their 5′ and 3′ ends, as well as in other regions, that are involved in circularization. These motifs are highly conserved throughout the Flavivirus genus and occur both in mature virions and within infected cells.
  • 800
  • 07 Apr 2021
Topic Review
Development of Zika Virus Vaccines
Zika virus (ZIKV) is an arbovirus first discovered in the Americas. ZIKV infection is insidious based on its mild clinical symptoms observed after infection. Currently, no specific prophylactics or therapeutics are clinically available to treat ZIKV infection. Development of a safe and effective vaccine is essential to prevent the rise of any potential pandemic.
  • 798
  • 28 Sep 2021
Topic Review
Papillomaviruses in Domestic Cats
Papillomaviruses (PVs) are well established to cause hyperplastic papillomas (warts) in humans and animals. In addition, due to their ability to alter cell regulation, PVs are also recognized to cause approximately 5% of human cancers and these viruses have been associated with neoplasia in a number of animal species. In contrast to other domestic species, cats have traditionally been thought to less frequently develop disease due to PV infection. However, in the last 15 years, the number of viruses and the different lesions associated with PVs in cats have greatly expanded.
  • 797
  • 24 Aug 2021
Topic Review
Performance of Rapid Antigen Tests for COVID-19 Diagnosis
The identification of viral RNA using reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) is the gold standard for identifying an infection caused by SARS-CoV-2. The limitations of RT-qPCR such as requirement of expensive instruments, trained staff and laboratory facilities led to development of rapid antigen tests (RATs). The performance of RATs has been widely evaluated and found to be varied in different settings. Although the sensitivity of RATs needs to be enhanced, it may still be a viable option in places where laboratory facilities are lacking for diagnostic purposes in the early phase of disease.
  • 796
  • 25 Feb 2022
Topic Review
SARS-CoV-2 Emerging Variants
Despite the slow evolutionary rate of SARS-CoV-2 relative to other RNA viruses, its massive and rapid transmission during the COVID-19 pandemic has enabled it to acquire significant genetic diversity since it first entered the human population. This led to the emergence of numerous variants, some of them recently being labeled “variants of concern” (VOC), due to their potential impact on transmission, morbidity/mortality, and the evasion of neutralization by antibodies elicited by infection, vaccination, or therapeutic application. The potential to evade neutralization is the result of diversity of the target epitopes generated by the accumulation of mutations in the spike protein. While three globally recognized VOCs (Alpha or B.1.1.7, Beta or B.1.351, and Gamma or P.1) remain sensitive to neutralization albeit at reduced levels by the sera of convalescent individuals and recipients of several anti-COVID19 vaccines, the effect of spike variability is much more evident on the neutralization capacity of monoclonal antibodies. The newly recognized VOC Delta or lineage B.1.617.2, as well as locally accepted VOCs (Epsilon or B.1.427/29-US and B1.1.7 with the E484K-UK) are indicating the necessity of close monitoring of new variants on a global level. The VOCs characteristics, their mutational patterns, and the role mutations play in immune evasion are summarized in this review. 
  • 794
  • 12 Jul 2021
Topic Review
Oligosaccharides in Post-COVID-19 Management
Oligosaccharides are short chains of carbohydrates composed of 2–20 monosaccharide units. They are present in a wide range of natural resources such as marine algae, plants, fruits, vegetables, and grains and can also be obtained through hydrolysis of polysaccharides.
  • 792
  • 20 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Antimicrobial Stewardship in Tropical Infectious Diseases
Acute undifferentiated febrile illness (AUFI) is a common presentation of tropical infections. Dengue is hyperendemic in tropical and subtropical countries, predominantly in urban and semi-urban areas. Dengue infection is the most common AUFI etiology in Bangkok, Thailand, accounting for 39.6% of non-malarial febrile cases from 2013 to 2015. Despite the global malaria recession, it remains the most common AUFI diagnosis in various countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, but was only observed at 1% in Southeast Asia. Distinguishing between tropical infection, such as dengue or malaria, and bacterial infection at the early presentation of AUFI is difficult. The non-specificity of symptoms and signs and lack of availability of diagnostic tests often result in irrational antibiotic use. Following the overuse of antibiotics, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a serious global public health threat.
  • 788
  • 24 Aug 2022
Topic Review
Structural, Functional Changes by SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Mutations
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, has sparked intense research on its spike protein, which is essential for viral entrance into host cells. Viral reproduction and transmission, host immune response regulation, receptor recognition and host cell entrance mechanisms, as well as structural and functional effects have all been linked to mutations in the spike protein. Spike protein mutations can also result in immune evasion mechanisms that impair vaccine effectiveness and escape, and they are linked to illness severity and clinical consequences. 
  • 787
  • 01 Dec 2023
Topic Review
DNA Replicons and Infectious Diseases
DNA-based gene therapy and vaccine development have received plenty of attention lately. DNA replicons based on self-replicating RNA viruses such as alphaviruses and flaviviruses have been of particular interest due to the amplification of RNA transcripts leading to enhanced transgene expression in transfected host cells. Moreover, significantly reduced doses of DNA replicons compared to conventional DNA plasmids can elicit equivalent immune responses. DNA replicons have been evaluated in preclinical animal models for cancer immunotherapy and for vaccines against infectious diseases and various cancers. Strong immune responses and tumor regression have been obtained in rodent tumor models. Immunization with DNA replicons has provided robust immune responses and protection against challenges with pathogens and tumor cells. DNA replicon-based COVID-19 vaccines have shown positive results in preclinical animal models.
  • 785
  • 06 Apr 2023
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