Your browser does not fully support modern features. Please upgrade for a smoother experience.
Submitted Successfully!
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic. For video creation, please contact our Academic Video Service.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1 Chun-Lin Lee -- 735 2026-09-17 05:53:04 |
2 Format Correction Abigail Zou Meta information modification 735 2026-09-17 07:09:39 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Academic Video Service to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Lee, C.; Pan, T. Monascus Yellow Pigments as Functional Food Ingredients. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/60078 (accessed on 07 October 2026).
Lee C, Pan T. Monascus Yellow Pigments as Functional Food Ingredients. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/60078. Accessed October 07, 2026.
Lee, Chun-Lin, Tzu-Ming Pan. "Monascus Yellow Pigments as Functional Food Ingredients" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/60078 (accessed October 07, 2026).
Lee, C., & Pan, T. (2026, September 17). Monascus Yellow Pigments as Functional Food Ingredients. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/60078
Lee, Chun-Lin and Tzu-Ming Pan. "Monascus Yellow Pigments as Functional Food Ingredients." Encyclopedia. Web. 17 September, 2026.
Peer Reviewed
Monascus Yellow Pigments as Functional Food Ingredients
This is a peer-reviewed entry published in Encyclopedia Journal, full entry can be found at https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia6080174

Monascus yellow pigments, including monascin, ankaflavin, and the derivative monascinol, are azaphilone secondary metabolites produced by Monascus species. They have attracted attention as candidate functional-food ingredients because experimental studies indicate activity in pathways relevant to lipid and glucose metabolism. Available evidence, however, is heterogeneous and is derived predominantly from in vitro and animal studies; the human evidence is limited to small, short-term studies of Monascus-fermented preparations rather than isolated pigments. Reported associations with PPAR-α/γ and AMPK signaling, and with gut–liver-axis outcomes, should therefore be interpreted as mechanistic or preclinical observations. Monascus yellow pigments may offer a promising safety profile relative to monacolin K-containing preparations, but their long-term efficacy, dose standardization, and safety require confirmation in adequately powered human trials. Monascus-fermented products are being investigated beyond their traditional use as colorants and sources of monacolin K, partly because monacolin K has statin-like safety concerns. This review summarizes the structural diversity, biosynthetic pathways, and reported pharmacological activities of monascin, ankaflavin, and monascinol. Preclinical studies suggest that these azaphilones may influence PPAR-α/γ-, AMPK-, oxidative-stress-, and inflammation-related pathways and may affect lipid and glucose metabolism. Evidence for gut-microbiota modulation by monascinol is currently derived mainly from animal and mechanistic studies. Human data remain limited, including a small, short-duration trial of a Monascus-fermented preparation enriched in monascin and ankaflavin; these findings support short-term investigation but do not establish long-term clinical efficacy or comparative safety. Accordingly, Monascus yellow pigments should be regarded as promising candidate functional ingredients whose composition, bioavailability, dose, long-term safety, and clinical applicability require further rigorous evaluation.

Monascus yellow pigments monascin ankaflavin monascinol monacolin K metabolic syndrome gut microbiota Akkermansia muciniphila

1.1. Historical Background and Industrial Transition of Monascus Fermentation

Monascus species have been utilized in Asian food and pharmaceutical sectors for over a millennium, producing red, orange, and yellow pigments alongside pharmacologically active compounds such as monacolin K [1][2][3]. While industrial production historically favored Monascus red pigments, recent scientific focus has shifted toward Monascus yellow pigments because of their reported biological activities and physicochemical properties. In cellular and animal studies, monascin and ankaflavin have shown lipid-regulatory and anti-inflammatory effects with low observed toxicity under the tested conditions. However, direct, standardized comparisons of their efficacy and safety with monacolin K are limited, particularly in humans. Thus, monascin and ankaflavin are more appropriately described as promising functional-food components for further investigation than as established alternatives to lipid-lowering therapeutics [4][5].
Recent reviews also describe monascin and ankaflavin as central yellow-pigment metabolites with relevance to biosynthesis, production, pharmacology, and functional-food development [6][7].

1.2. Physicochemical Stability and Precision Fermentation Control

Monascus yellow pigments exhibit high physicochemical stability and can outperform red and orange pigments in their tolerance to light, thermal stress, and extreme pH, which enhances their commercial viability [8][9]. To further improve systemic bioavailability, recent research has successfully introduced nanoliposomal encapsulation to protect these pigments within the gastrointestinal tract [10]. Concurrently, precision fermentation has empowered researchers to manipulate secondary metabolic fluxes; for instance, the addition of calcium chloride (CaCl2) strongly upregulates the mppE gene, effectively redirecting biosynthesis toward the overproduction of yellow pigments [11]. Furthermore, utilizing specific nitrogen sources and optimizing pH levels can increase Monascus yellow pigment proportions while concurrently curtailing the generation of the mycotoxin citrinin [12]. This metabolic optimization addresses important safety bottlenecks, establishing a reliable foundation for toxin-free mass production [13].

1.3. Reported Multi-Target Molecular Activities

The biological relevance of Monascus yellow pigments stems from their multi-targeted molecular bioactivities. Natural monascin and ankaflavin have shown lipid-related, anti-inflammatory, and blood-pressure-related effects in experimental studies, including selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor modulation and activation of PPAR-α, PPAR-γ, and Nrf2-associated pathways [14]. Experimental studies have also reported effects on adipogenesis, lipid absorption, methylglyoxal-related stress, and oxidative-stress pathways [15][16][17]. These findings remain predominantly preclinical and should not be interpreted as established clinical efficacy.

1.4. Clinical Translational Evidence and Future Perspectives

These preclinical mechanisms have begun to be explored in small human studies of complex Monascus-fermented preparations. In a randomized, double-blind study, an Ankascin 568 plus preparation was associated with improvements in blood-lipid measures over a short intervention period [5]. Because the available trial was small, short in duration, and did not test isolated monascin or ankaflavin, the findings should be interpreted as preliminary rather than as proof of efficacy or long-term safety for individual yellow pigments. Larger, longer, well-standardized clinical trials are required before therapeutic positioning or comparative claims can be made (Figure 1) [1].
Encyclopedia 06 00174 g001
Figure 1. Evolution of Monascus fermentation from traditional colorants to bioactive yellow pigments based on published reviews, preclinical studies, and limited human evidence [1][2][3][4][5].

References

  1. Hong, X.; Deng, J.; Liu, J.; Zhong, H.; Ren, J.; Zhou, B. Research advances in yellow pigments derived from Monascus, an edible filamentous fungus. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 2025, 132, 83–122.
  2. Patakova, P. Monascus secondary metabolites: Production and biological activity. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2013, 40, 169–181.
  3. Feng, Y.; Shao, Y.; Chen, F. Monascus pigments. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2012, 96, 1421–1440.
  4. Lin, C.H.; Lin, T.H.; Pan, T.M. Alleviation of metabolic syndrome by monascin and ankaflavin: The perspective of Monascus functional foods. Food Funct. 2017, 8, 2102–2109.
  5. Liu, S.F.; Wang, Y.R.; Shen, Y.C.; Chen, C.L.; Huang, C.N.; Pan, T.M.; Wang, C.K. A randomized, double-blind clinical study of the effects of Ankascin 568 plus on blood lipid regulation. J. Food Drug Anal. 2018, 26, 393–400.
  6. Adin, S.N.; Gupta, I.; Panda, B.P.; Mujeeb, M. Monascin and ankaflavin-Biosynthesis from Monascus purpureus, production methods, pharmacological properties: A review. Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 2023, 70, 137–147.
  7. He, J.; Jia, M.; Li, W.; Deng, J.; Ren, J.; Luo, F.; Bai, J.; Liu, J. Toward improvements for enhancement the productivity and color value of Monascus pigments: A critical review with recent updates. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2022, 62, 7139–7153.
  8. Chen, G.; Wu, Z. Production and biological activities of yellow pigments from Monascus fungi. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2016, 32, 160.
  9. Vendruscolo, F.; Meinicke Bühler, R.M.; Cesar de Carvalho, J.; de Oliveira, D.; Moritz, D.E.; Schmidell, W.; Ninow, J.L. Monascus: A Reality on the Production and Application of Microbial Pigments. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2016, 178, 211–223.
  10. Dudek, A.; Pietrzak, M.; Benkowska-Biernacka, D.; Pruchnik, H.; Boratynski, F.; El-Sayed, E.R. Nanoliposomal Encapsulation of Red, Yellow, and Orange Natural Pigments from Monascus ruber: Characterization, Stability, and Biological Activities. Curr. Microbiol. 2025, 82, 259.
  11. Bai, Y.; Zhang, W.; Guo, R.; Yu, J.; Wang, Y. Enhancement of yellow pigments production via high CaCl2 stress fermentation of Monascus purpureus. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2024, 371, fnae012.
  12. Liu, H.; Zhang, J.; Lu, G.; Wang, F.; Shu, L.; Xu, H.; Li, Z.; Wang, Y.; Guo, Q.; Wu, S.; et al. Comparative metabolomics analysis reveals the metabolic regulation mechanism of yellow pigment overproduction by Monascus using ammonium chloride as a nitrogen source. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2021, 105, 6369–6379.
  13. Zhang, C.; Sun, Q.; Yang, L.; Ablimit, A.; Dong, H.; Wang, H.; Wang, C.; Wang, C. Mutation breeding of Monascus to produce a high yield of orange pigment and low citrinin content using the ARTP method. J. Fungi 2024, 10, 553.
  14. Hsu, W.H.; Chen, T.H.; Lee, B.H.; Hsu, Y.W.; Pan, T.M. Monascin and ankaflavin act as natural AMPK activators with PPARα agonist activity to down-regulate nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in high-fat diet-fed C57BL/6 mice. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2014, 64, 94–103.
  15. Lee, C.L.; Wen, J.Y.; Hsu, Y.W.; Pan, T.M. Monascus-fermented yellow pigments monascin and ankaflavin showed antiobesity effect via the suppression of differentiation and lipogenesis in obese rats fed a high-fat diet. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61, 1493–1500.
  16. Hsu, W.H.; Lee, B.H.; Chang, Y.Y.; Hsu, Y.W.; Pan, T.M. A novel natural Nrf2 activator with PPARγ-agonist (monascin) attenuates the toxicity of methylglyoxal and hyperglycemia. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2013, 272, 842–851.
  17. Tan, H.; Xing, Z.; Chen, G.; Tian, X.; Wu, Z. Evaluating antitumor and antioxidant activities of yellow Monascus pigments from Monascus ruber fermentation. Molecules 2018, 23, 3242.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Food Science & Technology
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register : Chun-Lin Lee , Tzu-Ming Pan
View Times: 17
Online Date: 17 Sep 2026
Table of Contents
    Notice
    You are not a member of the advisory board for this topic. If you want to update advisory board member profile, please contact office@encyclopedia.pub.
    OK
    Confirm
    Only members of the Encyclopedia advisory board for this topic are allowed to note entries. Would you like to become an advisory board member of the Encyclopedia?
    Yes
    No
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    There is no comment~
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    ${ selectedItem.replyTextCharacter }/${ selectedItem.replyMaxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    Confirm
    Are you sure to Delete?
    Yes No
    Academic Video Service
    Feedback