Encyclopedia:
From Scholars for Scholars

As the world grapples with the challenges of climate change, agriculture, particularly crop production, faces increasing uncertainty. In the Mediterranean Basin, regions like Northern Greece are expected to see significant shifts in climate patterns, affecting critical crops such as maize.  1. Maize: A Crucial Crop for Northern Greece Maize is one of the staple crops in Greece, widely grown for animal feed and starch production. In Northern Greece, it covers about 10% of the arable land, and the crop's productivity is essential to the local agricultural economy. However, maize production relies heavily on irrigation, which may face increasing pressure due to climate change. In response to these potential changes, researchers used the CropSyst simulation model to project how maize yield and irrigation needs will evolve in the coming decades under different climate scenarios. 2. How Will Climate Change Impact Maize Yields and Water Needs? The study's findings provide a clear picture of the potential risks posed by climate change to maize production in Northern Greece. Impact on Maize Yields Under the moderate climate scenario (RCP4.5), maize yields could decrease by up to 3.7%. In a severe scenario (RCP8.5), where temperature increases are more pronounced, yield losses could reach as high as 15.8%, depending on the model used. These reductions in yield are due to a combination of factors: increased temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and elevated CO2 concentrations. While higher CO2 might boost photosynthesis, it may not be enough to offset the negative effects of heat stress and water scarcity. Impact on Irrigation Needs In addition to yield losses, irrigation water requirements are expected to vary. As temperatures rise and precipitation becomes more erratic, the amount of water needed for irrigation may increase in some years and decrease in others, depending on the exact climate model and scenario. This variability could pose a significant challenge to farmers, especially in a region like Northern Greece, where irrigation is crucial for maintaining maize productivity. 3. What Does This Mean for Farmers in Northern Greece? For farmers in Northern Greece, these findings highlight the need for proactive adaptation strategies to maintain sustainable maize production in the face of a changing climate. Some key takeaways include: Adapting to Climate Variability: Farmers will need to adjust irrigation systems to cope with fluctuating water requirements and potentially invest in more water-efficient technologies to mitigate the impact of reduced water availability. Diversifying Crops: While maize is a vital crop, it might be worth considering diversification to reduce reliance on a single crop, especially given the uncertainty surrounding climate impacts. Climate-Resilient Practices: Incorporating climate-smart agriculture practices, such as using drought-resistant maize varieties, improving soil health, and adopting precision farming techniques, can help farmers cope with unpredictable weather conditions. 4. Future Challenges The study’s findings underscore the urgency of developing regional strategies to adapt to climate change. As climate models evolve and new data becomes available, it is crucial for farmers, researchers, and policymakers to work together on sustainable irrigation solutions and crop management practices. Key Recommendations for Future Action Invest in Research and Training: Ongoing research into climate change adaptation strategies for agriculture will be essential. Providing training to farmers on the latest irrigation and farming practices will help them manage these challenges. Strengthen Irrigation Infrastructure: Ensuring that irrigation systems are efficient and able to cope with future demands is critical for maintaining crop productivity. Promote Climate Resilience: Local governments and agricultural organizations can play a key role by promoting climate-resilient farming practices and providing support for farmers facing increased pressure. 5. Conclusion Climate change poses significant risks to maize production in Northern Greece, with both yield reductions and irrigation challenges expected over the coming decades. By taking proactive steps now, farmers can better adapt to the changing climate and continue to sustain maize production in a more unpredictable world. Ultimately, the key to ensuring future agricultural productivity lies in sustainable farming practices, innovative water management, and collaboration between farmers, scientists, and policymakers to face the challenges of a changing climate. For more information about topic, you can view the online video entitled "Climate Change Scenarios on Maize Yield and Irrigation Water".

Avian influenza, commonly known as bird flu, is a viral infection that primarily affects birds, but its potential to spread to humans and other animals makes it a global concern. While poultry farmers are most often at risk, the threat of avian influenza transcends borders, affecting economies, agriculture, and public health worldwide.  1. What is Avian Influenza? Avian influenza is caused by influenza A viruses, which are subtypes of viruses that affect birds, especially wild waterfowl, domestic poultry, and other avian species. The virus is categorized into different strains based on the proteins on its surface, mainly hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N), which are numbered (e.g., H5N1, H7N9). While most strains of avian influenza are not dangerous to humans, some, like H5N1 and H7N9, have caused severe illness and even death in humans, leading to widespread concern. There are two general types of avian influenza viruses: Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza (LPAI) These strains cause mild symptoms in birds and typically do not pose a significant risk to humans or other animals. High Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) This more severe form of the virus can cause rapid death in birds, especially in poultry, and has the potential to infect humans, posing significant health risks. Source: Encyclopedia Scientific Infographic (https://encyclopedia.pub/image/3698) 2. Transmission and Spread Avian influenza spreads primarily through direct contact between infected and healthy birds. This can happen through: Feces: Infected birds shed the virus through their droppings, which can contaminate water, feed, and the environment. Saliva and Nasal Secretions: These bodily fluids can spread the virus through contact with infected birds or contaminated surfaces. Feathers and Skin: Infected birds may carry the virus on their feathers or skin, allowing for indirect transmission through handling or equipment. Migratory Birds: Wild waterfowl, such as ducks and geese, are natural hosts of avian influenza and can carry the virus over long distances, sometimes migrating across continents, spreading the virus to different regions. For humans, avian influenza is typically contracted through direct contact with infected poultry or contaminated environments. Close interactions with infected birds, such as handling sick birds, slaughtering them, or consuming poorly cooked poultry, increase the risk. 3. The Impact of Avian Influenza Economic Impact The poultry industry is highly vulnerable to outbreaks of avian influenza, as entire flocks may need to be culled to contain the virus. This not only leads to immediate financial losses for farmers but also disrupts the supply of poultry products in the market. The loss of consumer confidence during outbreaks can also affect poultry consumption and exports, leading to broader economic repercussions. Public Health Concerns While human infections with avian influenza are rare, they do occur, often in individuals who have close contact with infected poultry. When a virus like H5N1 or H7N9 is able to infect humans, it can result in serious respiratory illness, with symptoms ranging from mild flu-like symptoms to severe pneumonia, and even death. The fear is that if avian influenza viruses undergo mutations allowing for human-to-human transmission, it could lead to a global health crisis similar to the 1918 flu pandemic. Environmental Concerns The rapid spread of avian influenza in wild bird populations can disrupt ecosystems, particularly in wetlands where migratory birds play critical roles in local biodiversity. Infected birds can transmit the virus to other wildlife, further affecting the balance of natural habitats. 4. Control Measures and Prevention Given the global threat posed by avian influenza, control and prevention measures have been put in place to limit the spread of the disease. These measures include: Surveillance Continuous monitoring of both domestic and wild bird populations is essential to detect early outbreaks and contain the virus before it spreads to larger populations. Early detection can help prevent an epidemic in both avian and human populations. Culling and Quarantine In the event of an outbreak, infected flocks may be culled to prevent the virus from spreading. Additionally, quarantines are established around infected farms to restrict movement and prevent further exposure. Vaccination In some regions, poultry are vaccinated against avian influenza to reduce the risk of infection and minimize the spread. However, vaccine deployment must be carefully managed to prevent the development of resistance. Biosecurity Measures Farmers are encouraged to implement strict biosecurity practices to minimize the risk of infection. This includes limiting human contact with birds, disinfecting equipment, and ensuring that feed and water sources are clean and free of contamination. Public Awareness: Raising awareness about the risks of avian influenza and educating the public on proper handling of poultry, as well as the importance of thorough cooking, can reduce the risk of human infection. International Cooperation: The nature of avian influenza means that it does not recognize national borders. Therefore, international collaboration is key in monitoring and controlling outbreaks. The World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) all work together to provide guidelines, assist with outbreak containment, and share information across countries. 5. What the Future Holds While there have been significant advances in monitoring, prevention, and vaccine development, avian influenza remains a persistent threat due to its ability to mutate and spread rapidly. The rise of industrial-scale poultry farming, combined with increased international travel and trade, means that future outbreaks may be harder to control. However, continued research into vaccines, antiviral treatments, and more effective biosecurity measures will play a critical role in preventing future outbreaks and minimizing the damage they cause. Additionally, as humans continue to interact more with wildlife, addressing the environmental factors that drive these diseases—such as habitat destruction and climate change—could help mitigate future risks. For more information about topic, you can view the online infographic entitled "Avian Influenza".

We are pleased to announce that the “Encyclopedia Outstanding Contributor Award” in 2025 is now open for applications. In 2025, we will award two outstanding contributors to the Encyclopedia platform (https://encyclopedia.pub/) and the journal Encyclopedia. After a thorough evaluation, the journal award committee, led by Editor-in-Chief Prof. Dr. Raffaele Barretta, will select all eligible contributors. The winners will be announced in March 2026. The Prize – CHF 300 (Swiss francs);– An opportunity to publish one paper free of charge in the Encyclopedia journal before 31 December 2026, following peer review;– An electronic certificate. Eligibility and Requirements To be eligible, applicants must meet at least one of the following criteria:– The applicants must have published at least one qualified entry/video/image on the Encyclopedia platform in 2025;– The applicants must have published at least one paper in the Encyclopedia journal in 2025.  Application Deadline 15 January 2026. Winner announcement 31 March 2026. Please send your curriculum vitae/resume to our Editorial Office before the above deadline (encyclopedia@mdpi.com). As mentioned above, the winners will be announced on the journal's website in March 2026. Kind regards, Encyclopedia Editorial Office.