1000/1000
Hot
Most Recent
Double emulsions (DEs) present promising applications as alternatives to conventional emulsions in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. Generally, double emulsions are classified into two main categories, water-in-oil-in-water emulsions denoted by W1/O/W2 and oil-in-water-in-oil emulsions denoted by O1/W/O2, to distinguish between two aqueous and oil phases with different compositions
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- Honeybee pollen (0.7–1.5 mL) | - Lauroglycol 90® (900–1200 mg), span 80 (360 mg), and Lipoid P75® (60 mg) |
- Chitosan (6–24 mg in 3.5 mL) - Pluronic F68 (230–700 mg in 3.5 mL) |
- | - | - Droplet size: 90 nm - Zeta potential: +33 - EE ˃ 78% - ↑ Stability under SIF and storage - ↑ ORAC and antibacterial activity (inhibition zone) against Streptococcus pyogenes = 23 mm than free extract |
[13] |
- Pitanga leaf hydroethanolic extract | - Soybean oil - PGPR (3%) |
- Tween 80 (3–8%) - SC (0.5%) |
20:80 | 30:70 40:60 |
- Droplet size: 4.71–5.28 µm - Zeta: −30–−37.4 mV - Optimized formulation: 40/60 ratio and 3% Tween 80 - ABTS: 482 TE mg/g - FRAP: 2176 µmol TE/g - Inhibition zone against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Salmonella ssp., S. aureus, were 0, 11, 8, and 13 mm, respectively |
[10] |
- Tween 80 | - Corn oil - Span 20 - Oregano essential oil (170–680 ppm) |
- Mixture of Tween 80 and Span 20 (13:87; 9.75%) - Inulin (3%) |
40:60 | 20:80 30:70 |
- ↑ Antifungal activity against A. niger - Dose-dependent antifungal activity - The smallest droplet size during 20 days (2.68 and 3.05 μm) prepared at 20:80 ratio and 5800 rpm - The highest particle size and creaming at a 30:70 ratio at 2900 |
[16] |
- NaCl (0.584%) - Hydroxytyrosol (Hyt; 0.125%) |
- Perilla oil - PGPR (6%) |
- SC (0.5) - NaCl (0.584%) |
20:80 | 40:60 | - Gelation with 4% bovine gelatine and 2% microbial transglutaminase—higher droplet size (3.72 μm) after Hyt addition than the control (2.55 μm) - Gel-like behavior, no frequency dependent properties, formation of weaker gels after Hyt addition - ↓ Hardness and chewiness and ↑ antioxidant activity after Hyt addition - ↓ Total viable count after 30 d at 2 °C |
[15] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- Hyssop extract | - Soybean oil - Span 80 (25%) |
- Different emulsifiers including soy protein isolate (SPI; 3%)/chia seed gum (0.1%) - SPI (6%) |
7:93 | 30:70 | - ↑ EE with SPI/chia seed gum (87.69%) than SPI (80.71%) - Shear-thinning behavior - Oxidative stability: ↑ PV and p-Anisidine time-dependently; lower PV and p-Anisidine with SPI/chia seed gum than SPI and free extract - Higher zeta potential SPI/chia seed gum (31.533 mV) and smaller droplets (190.833 nm) than SPI |
[23] |
- Gallic acid (200 ppm) -NaCl (100 mM) - Fe2(SO4)3 (5mM) - In gelled emulsion:κ-carrageenan (1%), KCl (100 mM) |
- Linseed oil - PGPR (7.5%) - Monoglyceride (7.5%) - α-tocopherol (1045 ppm) |
- Tween 80 (4%) | 20:80 | 40:60 | - ↓ D4,3 and ↑ stability after O phase gelation - ↑ Negative values of zeta potential for all formulations - Rheology: weak frequency-dependent and higher viscoelastic behaviors after O phase gelation - Higher values of PV, TBAR, p-Anisidine, and conjugated diene during storage, especially after O gelation - ↑ Induction period after antioxidant addition, higher effectiveness of α-tocopherol than gallic acid based on polar paradox |
[19] |
- Black chokeberry pomace extract (BCEP) (15–35%) - NaCl (0.5%) |
- Rapeseed oil - PGPR (3%) |
- Milk protein solution (14%) | 20:80 | 30:70 | - High thermal stability (100–91.2%) at 4 °C for 60 days - D4,3: ranged from 61.66 μm to 37.65 μm, ↓ D4,3 at higher concentration of BCEP and during storage - ↑ Viscosity at higher concentrations of BCEP - High EE (>95%) during storage - ↓ DPPH• scavenging after 21 days of storage at 4 °C from 36.32–44.50% to 12.12–15.40% - ↑ DPPH• scavenging at higher concentrations of BCEP - ↑ PV six to ten times lower (4.86–7.47) than control DE (47 meq O2 kg−1) during storage at 37 °C for 60 days - ↑ Conjugated dienes and trienes during storage at 37 °C for 60 days less than control DE |
[21] |
- Brassinolide (0.008%) - Gelatin (1%) - NaCl (0.1%) |
- Olive oil - Cinnamon essential oil (2.66%) - PGPR (1.66%) |
- Different emulsifiers including whey protein concentrate (WPC)-gum arabic and WPC - high methoxyl pectin (HMP) at 1:3; 1:1; 3:1 ratio |
10:30 | 10:30 | - Optimized formulation: DE stabilized by WPC-HMP (1:3) with largest particle size (581.30 nm), lowest PDI (0.23) and zeta potential (−40.31 mV), and highest EE of brassinolide (92%) and cinnamon essential oil (88%). - Results of broccoli coating: ↑ Chlorophyll content and ↓ activities of chlorophyllase (9%) and magnesium-dechelatase (24%), and a lower rate of respiration after storage than control broccoli - Activated energy metabolic enzymes (SDH, CCO, H+-ATPase, Ca2+-ATPase), ↑ ATP, and energy charge. |
[24] |
- Murraya koenigii berries extract (MKB) - NaCl (0.6%) |
- Soybean oil - PRPG (6%) |
- WPC (6%) - NaCl (0.6%) |
50:50 | 70:30 | - ↑ Emulsion stability, cooking yield, hardness and lightness of meat batter - ↓ Shrinkage and redness values of meat batter - ↑ G′, G″, and η* of meat batter - The order of TBARS during storage at 4 °C for 9 days: meat batter with vegetable oil > animal fat > control DE > DE and free MKB > MKB-loaded DE - ↑ Oxidation stability of lipid phase and meat batter |
[22] |
- Emblica officinalis (EEO) extract (15–50%) - NaCl (1–2%) |
- Rice bran oil - PGPR (2–4%). |
- Different emulsifiers (0–4%) including low methoxy pectin (LMP), gum Arabic, WPC, SC |
30:70 | 30:70 | - Optimized DE: 2% NaCl, 50% EEO, 4% PGPR, 2% LMP - D4,3: 72.95 µm, high EE (>90%), ↓ during storage - Viscosity: 0.715 Pa.s, ↓ during storage - Zeta potential: −32.17 mV, ↓ during storage - ↑ Encapsulation efficiency at higher EEO concentration - ↑ Antioxidant stability than free extract - ↓ Antioxidant stability after 3 months at cold storage less than free extract (↓ ABTS of control and DE from 7872 and 7473 to 753 and 2969 mM TE g−1, respectively) |
[20] |
- Catechin (750 µg/mL) - Gelatin (3%)-NaCl (2%) - Ascorbic acid (0.2%) |
- Olive oil - PGPR (6%) - Curcumin (0.1%) |
- Tween 80 (1%) - Ascorbic acid (0.2%) - NaCl (2%) |
25:75 | 25:75 | - D4,3: ↓ from ≈3.88 for the blank to ≈2.8–3.0 µm for curcumin and/or catechin-loaded as well as co-delivery DE - Zeta potential ≈ −20 mV - EE: 88% for curcumin, 97% for catechin, >80% for co-delivery DE. - Loading efficiency: 0.1% for curcumin, 0.075% for catechin, 0.175% for co-delivery DE - In vitro release: controlled release of curcumin from curcumin- and co-loaded DE, burst release of catechin from catechin- and co-loaded DE (≈30% within 30 min and >45% within 1 h) - In vitro bioaccessibility: ≈72% for curcumin-loaded, 68% for curcumin in co-delivery DE, ≈16% for free curcumin, ≈60% for catechin-loaded, ≈54% co-delivery DE, and ≈10% for free catechin |
[25] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- Nattokinase (20%) | - Soybean oil - PGPR (6%) |
- SPI (1%) - Polyglutamic acid (PGA) (1%) - Complex SPI:PGA (1%) at different ratios (5:1, 3:1, 1:1, 1:3, 1:5) |
30:70 | 30:70 | - Smaller droplet size of complexes than individual SPI and PGA - Higher zeta potential of complexes than individual SPI and PGA by stronger repulsive force - Highest apparent viscosity for the 1:5 ratio complex - Highest EE (97.19) for the 1:3 ratio complex - ↓ Release rate of FFA for in vitro simulated digestion for complex-stabilized DEs - Highest bioavailability (80.69%) for the 1:3 ratio complex |
[26] |
- Lactase (100 U) - Potassium phosphate buffer (0.02 M) |
- Corn oil - PGPR 90 (0.5%) |
- Gelatin (5%) - Gum Arabic (5%) |
33:66 | - Not mentioned | - Optimum core solution concentration: 1% - ↑ Storage stability due to the low water activity (≤0.4) and particle size (≤93.52 μm) - ↑ EE (≥98.67%) - ↑ Significant pH stability, temperature stability, and storage stability of enzymes compared to the free-form - ↓ and ↑ of both release rate and lactase activity in SGF and SIF, respectively, after encapsulation |
[29] |
Nattokinase (20 mg/mL) | - Different oils (MCT, liquid paraffin) and emulsifiers (10–25%) including Abil EM90, Arlacel P135, andSpan 80 |
Labrasol (10–20%) | 30:70 40:60 70:30 |
10:90 20:80 30:70 40:60 50:50 60:40 70:30 80:20 90:10 |
- ↑ Emulsifying capacity of MCT as oil phase and EM90 as emulsifier - Optimized condition: 20% Abil EM90, 15% Labrasol, and 40% W1 - ↓ D4,3: 5.3 to 4.7 μm after 30 days - Initial EE: 86.8% - ↓ EE to 82.6% after 30 days at 25 °C - Improved sustained in vitro release (30% after 8 h) - The release rate in vitro under pH values: 1.21 > H2O > 4.50 > 6.80 - ↑ Blood clotting time in mice at all doses (111.3–194.1 s) as compared with free forms - Enhanced carrageenan-induced tail thrombosis outcome |
[28] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- L. acidophilus (5.1 × 107 CFU/g) - NaCl (0.15 M) |
- MCT oil - Fish oil (0–10%) - PGPR (1–5%) |
- Different emulsifiers including SPI, (0.5–2%) and SA (0.25–1%) | 10:90 20:80 30:70 40:60 |
30:70 40:60 50:50 60:40 |
- ↑ W1 from 10% to 30% led to ↑ stability—the only stable DE in 7 days at 4 °C: at 10% W1 - ↑ Fish oil and SA led to ↑ viability in SGF and SIF - ↓ GI release by SA and fish oil - ↑ Cell count and ability to adhere to the intestinal mucosa by the addition of fish oil - ↑ Viscosity, stability, and probiotic EE in the presence of SA - The highest EE 0–7.5% fish oil, 1.5% SPI, 0.27–0.75% SA - ↑ SPI and ↑ SA led to ↑ viscosity - ↑ SA led to ↓ size |
[33] |
- L. plantarum (11 log CFU/g) - Different emulsifiers including gelatin (2%), - Alginate (2%)/CaCl2 (100 mM), tragacanth gum (2%), carrageenan (2%)/KCl (100 mM) |
- Olive oil - PGPR (6%) |
- Tween 80 (4%) | 20:80 | 40:60 | - Size range: from 6.4 (tragacanth) to 14.7 µm (alginate) - Zeta range: −21.1 to −46.2 mV - The least stability was for carrageenan (>80%) - The highest EE (97.4%) by carrageenan - ↑ Heat protection by gelling agents - Best gelling agent: tragacanth due to increased viability at low pH and heating to 28.05% and 16.74%, respectively - The highest viscosity by alginate |
[35] |
- L. plantarum F1 - Different prebiotics including mannitol (2%) and trehalose (2%) - Guar gum (0.5%) - Tween 80 (5%) |
- Sunflower oil - Lecithin (5%) - Lipophilic sea buckthorn pomace extract (LSBPE, 5%) |
- Alginate (2%) - Tween 80 (5%) |
40:60 | 40:60 | - Best condition: Mannitol as prebiotic due to high encapsulation yield (82.19%), good cell survival rate (76.99%), and low chemical degradation of the oil (PV: 3.8 meq O2/kg fat) after 42 days Size: 2.2–2.3 µm - ↑ Oxidative stability by LSBPE - ↓ 1.02 and 5.79 log encapsulated and free cells in SGF, respectively - ↑ Gelation time led to ↑ cell count and gel hardness |
[34] |
- L. plantarum (10.4 log CFU/g) - Sucrose (10 g/L) - Glucose (4.6 g/L) |
- Corn oil - PGPR (1.5%) |
- Tween 80 (0.75%) - Tara gum (1.5%) |
30:70 | 30:70 | - Size: 12 µm - Pseudoplastic behavior (index 0.63) - EE: 86% (7.92 log CFU/mL) - Results of mango dessert incorporating 25% DE: - ↑ Cell by glucose and lactose - ↑ Viability in DE - Low protection in the small intestine - 3.85 log CFU/mL count in large intestinal |
[36] |
- L. reuteri (10.69 log CFU/mL) | - MCT - PGPR (5%) |
- Poloxamer 407 (2.5%) | 20:80 | 20:80 | - Size: 13.4 µm, no changes in size in 30 days - EE: 7.23 Log CFU/mL during cold storage - ↓ Stability lower than control (from 6.18 to <1 Log CFU/mL) compared to encapsulated bacteria (from 7.23 to 2.82 Log CFU/mL). - 70% survival in GI for encapsulated bacteria - No changes in cell count after 3 days at 6 °C - 5.2 and 2.82 log CFU/mL on the 15th and 30th days |
[30] |
- L. Plantarum - Fructooligosaccharides (2%) |
- MCT - PGPR (0.5–5%) |
- Na2EDTA - CaCl2 - Alginate (2%) - WPI - EGCG conjugates (0.5 to 5%) |
20:80 40:60 60:40 80:20 |
50:50 | - ↓ Size with ↑ PGPR, ↓ oil phase, and ↑particle conjugate - ↓ pH led to ↑ G′ - Hydrogel state at pH ≤ 4 - Low loss in GI (from 7.79 × 107 to 7.39 × 107 CFU/mL) at PGPR content of 5% |
[32] |
Bifidobacterium lactis subsp. lactis BB-12 (11.35 log CFU/g) - Glycose (5%) - Inulin (2%) |
- Olive pomace oil - Span 20 (2.5%) - Tween 40 (2.5%) |
- Different encapsulating agents including SA (2%), pectin (1%), gelatin (1%), casein (1%), and gum Arabic (1%) | 20:80 | 15:85 | - Zeta: (−0.14)–(−3.36) mV - SA as the best encapsulating agent - Results of coating of beads with chitosan with two methods: EE: 72.48–81.68%, 68.6–86.1% survival rate in GI- >106 CFU/g count after 1 month, combining the extrusion/DE emulsification as compared to cells encapsulated through conventional extrusion (survival rate 46.8%) after 15 days - 80% viability at acidic pHs - Higher viscosity (283.4 cP) for alginate-pectin DE |
[31] |
- L. plantarum - Aguamiel or sweet whey - Panodan SKD (1.6%) |
- Canola oil - PGPR 90 (6.4%) |
- Mesquite gum (13.2%) - Maltodextrin DE10 (3.4%) - Gum Arabic (3.4%) |
30:70 | 30:70 | - Larger size with aguamiel (than sweet whey) - Small size increment after 14 days - Results of cheese preparation incorporating DE: ↑ Cell viability with DE (compared to free cells in cheese), ↑ heat protection by aguamiel DE (than sweet whey DE) - After melting, ↓ Log CFU/g by 2.18, 1.42, and 1.94 for control cheese, cheese formulated with DE/sweet whey and cheese formulated with DE/aguamiel, respectively, - ↑ Viability at low and high pH values in DE (especially aguamiel DE) |
[37] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- NaCl (0.25–1%) | - Sunflower oil - PGPR (6%) - Monoglyceride (8%) |
- Modified starch (4%) | 20:80 | 40:60 | - ↑ EE by oil gelation - The results of preparation of a low-salt burger: - ↓ 25% salt by replacing DE in the burger with desirable saltiness ↑ Antioxidant stability and ↓ color changes during storage in the presence of cinnamaldehyde in the oil phase - ↓ Cooking loss by adding DE - Undesirable changes in textural properties by adding DE |
[47] |
- Bitter peptide (50%) - Tartrazine (2%) - Gelatin (0–2%) |
- Palm oil - Camellia oil - PGPR (4%) |
- Gelatin (0–2%) - SC (2.5%) |
40:60 | 40:60 | - Size range: 9.38–52.3 µm - ↑ Gelatin led to ↓ size - ↑ Viscosity and ↑ physical stability by gelatin - EE > 80% by gelation - ↑ EE and ↓ release by W1 gelation - ↑ Bitter taste masking by W2 gelation - ↓ Peptide release ↑ gelatin |
[40] |
- 2,3-diacetyl - Citric acid - Sodium sulphate buffer - SA(0.5%) |
- Soybean oil - Beeswax (BW, 0–8%) - PGPR (2%) |
- Bacterial cellulose (1%) | 30:70 | 50:50 | - ↑ Size by ↑ BW up to 4% - G′ < G″ at BW 2–4% - ↑ BW led to ↑ stress at the crossover point and shear thinning behavior - ↑ BW led to ↑ viscosity and ↑ friction coefficient - ↑ BW led to ↓ ∆BS and ↓ thickness, ↓ osmotic pressure and ↑ stability at 6–8% - BW 6–8% led to ↓ aroma release with no difference at 25 and 37 °C, extended aroma release by BW (smallest decreasing amplitude for 8%) |
[43] |
- MgCl2 (5%) - Na-caseinate (0.5%) |
- Olive oil - PGPR (1–6%) |
- Saccharose (≤15% of total DE) - Na-caseinate (12.5%) |
40:60 | 40:60 35:65 30:70 |
- Smaller droplets at 40:60 (8.58 µm) - Shear thinning and pseudoplastic behavior (n < 1) - The lowest viscosity at 40:60 - The lowest hydrolysis degree (of oil) in GI at 35:65 - ↑ Sweetness of DE (40:60) compared to O/W by closely 75% |
[39] |
- Mg3(C6H5O7)2 (0.025 M) - MgSO4 (0.075 M) - MgCl2 (0.075 M) - Mg(C3H5O3)2 (0.075 M) - Mg(C3H5O3)2 (0.075 M) + Lactose (0.225 M) - CaCl2 (0.075 M) - NaCl (0.075 M) - CsCl (0.075 M) - CsCl (0.15 M) |
- Miglyol oil - PGPR (5%) |
SC (3.1%) Lactose (0.125 to 3 M) |
40:60 | 10:90 | - Anion and cation affect the release rate of salts - ↑ Release of each encapsulated salt from W1 to W2 during storage - ↑ Complexation constant of Mg2+ with its counterion led to ↓ the release - ↓ Hydration enthalpy of Mg2+ counter ion led to ↓ the release - ↑ Release rate for chloride ions in case of monovalent ions (Cs+ and Na+) than divalent ions |
[48] |
- Fish protein hydrolysate (12%) - NaCl (4%) - Vitamin B12 (4%) |
- Fish oil - PGPR (6–10%) |
- WPC - Inulin - WP/inulin ratios: 1/1, 1.608/1, 2.5/1, 3.39/1, 4/1 |
30:70 | 50:50 61.65:38.34 71.47:28.57 77.22:22.78 80:20 |
- The optimum parameters: 2:1 ratio of wall/core, 2.12:1 ratio of WPC/Inulin, and 6.28% PGPR ↓ WPC/inulin and ↑ PGPR led to ↓ release of the vitamin - ↓ WPC/inulin, ↓ W1O/W2, and ↑ PGPR led to ↓ creaming - ↓ WPC/inulin and ↑ PGPR led to ↑ EE - Interaction between W1/O/W2 and WPC/inulin led to ↓ encapsulation stability of the vitamin - WPC/inulin and W1O/W2 led to positive and negative effects on the encapsulation stability of the vitamin - Results of fortified yogurt with DE - Optimized DE condition for sensory analysis led 2:1 mass ratio of W1/O to W2, 2.12:1 ratio of WPC to inulin, and 6.28% PGPR The addition of a flavoring agent was recommended |
[42] |
- NaCl (6%) - Z. rouxii (105 CFU/mL) |
- Soybean oil - PGPR (2%) |
- NaCl (6%) Tween 80 (1%) - T. halophilus (106 CFU/mL) |
20:80 | 20:80 | - The results of reduced NaCl and/or substitution with KCl in soy sauce fermentation: - Non-newtonian behavior - ↑ Brine to koji led to ↓ viscosity - ↓ Size during fermentation (27.88 to 11.40) - ↓ Size by adding DE to moromi - Partial NaCl substitution led to ↑ T. halophilus growth and ↑ lactic acid - ↓ NaCl led to ↑ T. halophilus growth to 8.88 log CFU/mL, faster sugar depletion, and ↑ lactic acid production. - Simultaneous incubation led to ↑ T.halophilus growth and production of volatile compounds |
[41] |
- Gelatin (10%) - NaCl (0.4%) |
- Sunflower Oil - PGPR (4–9%) |
- WPI (1%) - NaCl (0.2%) |
30:70 40:60 50:50 |
30:70 50:50 |
- 70% W2 and ↓ oil content (↑ % fat replacing) led to ↓ droplet size, ↓ viscosity, and ↑ expelled gelatin in W2 - 50% W2 and ↓ oil led to ↑ expelled gelatin in W2, ↑ viscosity and ↑ yield - Improvement or no change in sensory properties up to 40% fat replaced by DE (with gelled W1) |
[49] |
- Mulberry anthocyanins (0.5%) | - Walnut oil - PGPR (6%) |
- Pectin (1%) - Proclin 300 (0.05%) - GDL (0–2%) |
40:60 | 40:60 | - No delamination of DEs after 28 d of storage at 4 °C as compared to 25 °C - Particle size: ↑ from 625 to 1781 and 2316 nm after storage at 4 °C and 25 °C, respectively; - Zeta potential: ↑ from −48 to −40 and −25 mV after storage at 4 °C and 25 °C, respectively; - ↑ Yellowness and ↓ reddishne ssafter storage at 4 °C and 25 °C, respectively; - EE: ↓ from 95.3% to 93.2% and 88.9% after storage at 4 °C and 25 °C, respectively - Rheology: ↑ G′ and G″ after the addition of GDL during the frequency sweep test, suggesting gel-like behavior - ↑ 3D printing ability by GDL, particularly at 1.6% |
[45] |
- WPI (2%) - Lutein (0.002%) |
- Sunflower oil - PGPR (4%) - Lutein (0.002%) |
- WPI (2%) - Xanthan gum (0.5%) |
10:90 | 20:80 | - Droplet size of DEs: 40–49 µm - ↑ Lutein stability against light - ↑ Lutein bioaccessibility after in vitro digestion in DEs rather than W/O - ↓ Lutein content from 18.8 to 12.3 µg/g and 19.9 to 11.3 µg/g after 14 days for W/O-L/W and W-L/O/W, respectively. - ↑ Lutein recovery (99%) after digestion for W/O-L/W and W-L/O/W - The highest color stability in W-L/O/W |
[44] |
- Sample A: NaCl (0.1 M), glycerol (3%), Opuntia stricta var. dillenii (OPD extract; 750 mg) - Sample B: OPD extract (750 mg), gelatin (6%) |
- Sample A: MCT, PGPR (5%) - Sample B: MCT, PGPR (14%), phosphatidylcholine (4%) |
- Sample A: NaCl (0.1 M), Tween 20 (2%), - Sample B: NaCl (1.3%), glycerol (13%), and a mixture of caseinate (3%), guar gum (0.175%), and gum Arabic (0.265%) |
- Sample A: 25:75 - Sample B 30:70 |
Sample A: 25:75 - Sample B 30:70 |
- Higher a* (red to green) value of sample B than sample A Zeta = −32.7 (sample A) and −49.2 (sample B) - The lowest size (1.75 µm) and stability for sample A - EE: 68.2–98%, sample B was more efficient - In vitro gastro-intestinal digestion: ↑ and ↓particle size for sample A and B, respectively. - ↑ Bioaccessibility of the individual betanins and phenolic compounds after encapsulation (67.1 to 253.1%) in comparison with the non-encapsulated ones (30.1 to 64.3%), except for neobetanin |
[50] |
- Gelatin (10%) - Phycocyanin (0.2%) |
- Soybean oil - PGPR (4%) - Astaxanthin (2%) |
- SC (3%) - Gellan gum (0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, and 0.7%) |
20:80 | 60:40 | - Droplet size: ↓ from 14.98 μm for DE without gellan gum to 7.11 μm at a concentration of 0.7% due to the ↑ viscosity of W2 -Rheology: ↑ G′ and ↑ G″ after gellan gum addition - ↑ Water holding capacity at higher gellan gum concentrations - ↓ serum separation, ↑ ionic and heat stability at gellan > 0.3% - ↑ EE with ↑ the concentration of gellan gum (90.82% for astaxanthin at 0.5% and 94.1% for phycocyanin at 0.7%) - ↑ Color stability as evidenced by no color change after 10 days In vitro release: <25% for phycocyanin and astaxanthin in SGF and >60% in SIF - Successful pH-controlled release - Significant ↑ bioaccessibility of phycocyanin (12.54%) and astaxanthin (14.27%) in DE and DE gels |
[1] |
- Gelatin (5%) - Betanin |
- MCT - PGPR (5%) - Curcumin (0.75 mg/mL) |
- Sugar beet pectin-bovine serum albumin Pickering nanoparticles (0.5−2%) | 20:80 | 10:90 to 90:10 | - D4,3: ↓ from 95.7 to 34.8 μm by ↑ Pickering nanoparticles from 0.5% to 2%, respectively. ↑ by increasing volume fraction of primary emulsion; - Rheology: change from liquid-like behavior at 0.5% and 1.0% Pickering nanoparticles to gel-like behavior - EE: 84.1% and 65.3% for curcumin and betanin, respectively; - LE: <20% and >20% for curcumin and betanin, respectively; - ↑ Color stability in DEs as compared to free forms of colorants - ↑ Storage stability in DEs (57.9% to 81.5% (curcumin) and 43.5% to 76.6% (betanin)) as compared to free forms - ↑ Extent and rate of FFA released after encapsulation as compared to free MCT - ↑ Bioaccessibility of betanin (42.7%) and curcumin (53.5%) as compared to free forms |
[46] |
- Grape seed proanthocyanidin (GSP; 2 mg/mL) - Sucrose (3%) |
- Olive oil - PGPR (5%) |
- WPI (3%) - Konjac glucomannan (KGM) (0–1.75%) |
30:70 | 30:70 | - ↑ WHC, rheological and texture properties after KGM addition - ↑ Heat stability of GSP with ↑ KGM concentrations - Freeze–thaw stability: ↓ syneresis and GSP retention with up to 1.5% KGM - The highest UV stability 1.5% KGM - In vitro digestion: ↓ hydrolysis of protein and oil droplets and ↑ bioavailability of GSP after KGM addition - ↑ EE and encapsulation stability and ↓ LE, of GSP after 14 days with ↑ KGM - Color: ↑ L* and b* values and ↓ a* values with ↑ KGM |
[51] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- Monascus pigment - Flaxseed gum (0.75%) |
- Soybean oil - PGPR (6%) |
- Pea protein isolate (5%) | 20:80 | 40:60 | - ↑ Flaxseed gum led to ↑ size, ↓ instability index and ↓ mean square displacement - Results of sausage properties incorporating 0–30% DEs: Texture: ↓ hardness and ↑ cohesiveness by fat replacing with DE, the highest chewiness and gumminess at a 30% DE level - ↓ Lipid from 11.22% to 5.09%, ↑ protein from 15.77% to 17.02%, ↑ PUFA from 23.36% to 59.63%, ↑ WHC and oxidative stabilitycompared control - ↑ Lightness by fat replacing with DE |
[55] |
- Full-fat almond emulsion containing almond protein isolate (3.5%), almond oil (4%), and sugar (4.5%) | - Almond oil - PGPR (2%) |
- Full-fat almond emulsion containing almond protein isolate (3.5%), almond oil (4%), and sugar (4.5%) | 40:60 | 20:80 | - Results of set-type yoghurt-like almond-based gels incorporating 0–30% DE: No differences in size and cohesiveness at different DE contents - ↓ Water holding capacity, ↓ hardness, and ↑ syneresis by ↑ DE content - The highest viscosity at 30% DE - No difference in sensory properties of low-fat (containing DE) and full-fat yoghurt |
[54] |
- Gellan gum (0.4%) - CaCl2 (0.5%) |
- Refined pork oil - PGPR (3%) |
- SC (0.1%) | 40:60 | 80:20 | - Size: 5.38 µm - Results of sausage properties incorporating 0 and 20% DE - ↓ Fat and energy values and ↑ water compared to high- and low-animal fat sausages - Cooking loss (9.63%) less than high-fat sausages - Texture: equal adhesiveness and springiness in all sausages, ↓ hardness than high-fat sausages |
[52] |
- Hydrolysable tannin (10%) - Phosphate buffer |
- Sunflower oil (4%) - Lecithin (2%) - span 80 (2%) |
- Gum Arabic (3%) | 20:80 | 40:60 | - Results of fat-reduced short-dough biscuits incorporating 0–60% DE: - ↑ hardness, ↓ biscuit height, ↑ spread ratio, ↑ antioxidant capacity, and ↓ loss of hydrolysable tannin with ↑ DE - The highest astringent flavor masking and highest acceptability by replacing 40% fat with DE |
[53] |
- WPI(10–25%) - Rice protein (RP, 10–25%) - Pumpkin seed protein (PSP, 10–25%) |
- PGPR (1%) - Span 80 (1%) |
- Milk | 40:60 | 5:95 | - Higher viscosity (1.8 Pas) and serum index (5.2%) for RP-stabilized DE - The largest and the smallest size related to RP and WPI-stabilized DE - Results of fat-reduced cheese incorporating 5% DE: ↑ Hardness, ↑ cheese diameter, ↑ oil loss (except in WPI cheese) than full-fat cheese |
[56] |
- NaCl (0.6%) | - Olive oil - PGPR (6.4%) |
- SC (10%) - NaCl (0.6%) |
50:50 | 70:30 | - Results of model meet emulsion incorporating 0–30% DE: ↑ Fat replacing by DE led to ↓ jelly and fat separation, ↑ WHC, ↓ total expressible fat - ↑ TBAR after 60 days of storage, the lowest TBAR at 10% fat replacement by DE - ↑ DE led to ↓ hardness, ↑ cohesiveness, and ↓ gumminess and chewiness than full-fat control |
[57] |
- NaCl (0.6%) | - Olive oil - PGPR (6%) |
- SC (0.5%)/ - NaCl (0.6%) - WPC (6%) |
20:80 | 40:60 | - ↑ Size by WPC (compared to SC), wider size distribution during storage for SC DE - ↑ Thermal stability and ↑ creaming index at 0 °C compared to 7 °C - Results of meat system incorporating 0–34% DE: ↓ Total fluid released by adding DE - Similar hardness, cohesiveness, and springiness for meat systems with/without DE - ↑ Chewiness in fat reduced WPI DE - ↑ Lightness by adding DE |
[58] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- NaCl (5.84 mg/mL) - Crocin (65 mg/mL) |
- Cinnamaldehyde (33%) -PGPR (8%) |
-WPI (8.5%) | 50:50 | 30:70 | - Persian gum-based film: - ↓ Opacity by incorporating DE than free bioactive - ↓ Moisture content, water solubility, WVP, and swelling compared to the free and single-emulsion addition strategy - ↑ Contact angle more than control but less than the free and single-emulsion addition - ↑ Tensile strength and elongation at break as compared to control film and free and single emulsion addition - ↑ UV and visible barrier properties, ↑ photostability of crocin against fluorescent and UV lights, ↑ thermal and pH stability of crocin and cinnamaldehyde, ↑ antioxidant activity after 14 days compared to free bioactives |
[59] |
- “Pitanga” leaf hydroethanolic extract (10%) | - Soybean oil - PGPR (3%) |
- Tween 80 (3%) - SC (0.5%) |
20:80 | 40:60 | - Gelatin, chitosan, and gelatin–chitosan composite films: - ↑ Opacity - ↓ Roughness, contact angle, solubility, and WVP - ↑ Tensile strength and elastic modulus for gelatin and chitosan-based films but ↓ for gelatin–chitosan film, ↑ elongation at break for both gelatin and gelatin–chitosan films - Inhibition of bacterial growth just below the disks - ↑ Folin–Ciocalteu reducing capacity and antioxidant activity |
[61] |
- Pitanga leaf hydroethanolic (10%) | - Soybean oil - PGPR (3%) |
- Tween 80 (3%) - SC (0.5%) |
20:80 | 40:60 | - Gelatin, chitosan, and gelatin–chitosan composite films with nanocellulose (NC): ↓ Moisture content, solubility, WVP and ↑ opacity, tensile strength, and elongation at break after DE addition - ↑ FCRC, ABTS•+, FRAP after DE addition - Antimicrobial activity only in G-based film incorporating DE against S. aureus in the region of contact of the film - Light barrier order: gelatin-NC/DE > gelatin–chitosan-NC/DE > C-NC/DE > gelatin-NC > chitosan-NC > gelatin–chitosan-NC |
[62] |
- | - Sunflower oil - Lecithin (0.7%) |
- Coffee Byproducts (pectin and cellulose (3:7); 0.8–2.4%) - SC (0.5) |
15:85 | 5:95 | - Coffee byproduct-based film: Droplet size: 0.38–1.23 μm under the different times of homogenization - ↑ Thickness (0.15 to 0.25 mm), transparency (3.10–5.28%), WVP (3.76–15.96 g mm/m2hKpa), tensile strength (1.26–1.79 MPa), and elongation (3.40–5.20%) with ↑ polymer concentration - Antioxidant activity: (EC50; kg film/mol DPPH): ↑ from 2.47 to 4.35 with ↑ polymer concentration |
[63] (2023) |