Double emulsions (DEs) present promising applications as alternatives to conventional emulsions in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. Generally, double emulsions are classified into two main categories, water-in-oil-in-water emulsions denoted by W1/O/W2 and oil-in-water-in-oil emulsions denoted by O1/W/O2, to distinguish between two aqueous and oil phases with different compositions
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- Honeybee pollen (0.7–1.5 mL) | - Lauroglycol 90® (900–1200 mg), span 80 (360 mg), and Lipoid P75® (60 mg) |
- Chitosan (6–24 mg in 3.5 mL) - Pluronic F68 (230–700 mg in 3.5 mL) |
- | - | - Droplet size: 90 nm - Zeta potential: +33 - EE ˃ 78% - ↑ Stability under SIF and storage - ↑ ORAC and antibacterial activity (inhibition zone) against Streptococcus pyogenes = 23 mm than free extract |
[39] |
- Pitanga leaf hydroethanolic extract | - Soybean oil - PGPR (3%) |
- Tween 80 (3–8%) - SC (0.5%) |
20:80 | 30:70 40:60 |
- Droplet size: 4.71–5.28 µm - Zeta: −30–−37.4 mV - Optimized formulation: 40/60 ratio and 3% Tween 80 - ABTS: 482 TE mg/g - FRAP: 2176 µmol TE/g - Inhibition zone against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Salmonella ssp., S. aureus, were 0, 11, 8, and 13 mm, respectively |
[36] |
- Tween 80 | - Corn oil - Span 20 - Oregano essential oil (170–680 ppm) |
- Mixture of Tween 80 and Span 20 (13:87; 9.75%) - Inulin (3%) |
40:60 | 20:80 30:70 |
- ↑ Antifungal activity against A. niger - Dose-dependent antifungal activity - The smallest droplet size during 20 days (2.68 and 3.05 μm) prepared at 20:80 ratio and 5800 rpm - The highest particle size and creaming at a 30:70 ratio at 2900 |
[42] |
- NaCl (0.584%) - Hydroxytyrosol (Hyt; 0.125%) |
- Perilla oil - PGPR (6%) |
- SC (0.5) - NaCl (0.584%) |
20:80 | 40:60 | - Gelation with 4% bovine gelatine and 2% microbial transglutaminase—higher droplet size (3.72 μm) after Hyt addition than the control (2.55 μm) - Gel-like behavior, no frequency dependent properties, formation of weaker gels after Hyt addition - ↓ Hardness and chewiness and ↑ antioxidant activity after Hyt addition - ↓ Total viable count after 30 d at 2 °C |
[41] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- Hyssop extract | - Soybean oil - Span 80 (25%) |
- Different emulsifiers including soy protein isolate (SPI; 3%)/chia seed gum (0.1%) - SPI (6%) |
7:93 | 30:70 | - ↑ EE with SPI/chia seed gum (87.69%) than SPI (80.71%) - Shear-thinning behavior - Oxidative stability: ↑ PV and p-Anisidine time-dependently; lower PV and p-Anisidine with SPI/chia seed gum than SPI and free extract - Higher zeta potential SPI/chia seed gum (31.533 mV) and smaller droplets (190.833 nm) than SPI |
[48] |
- Gallic acid (200 ppm) -NaCl (100 mM) - Fe2(SO4)3 (5mM) - In gelled emulsion:κ-carrageenan (1%), KCl (100 mM) |
- Linseed oil - PGPR (7.5%) - Monoglyceride (7.5%) - α-tocopherol (1045 ppm) |
- Tween 80 (4%) | 20:80 | 40:60 | - ↓ D4,3 and ↑ stability after O phase gelation - ↑ Negative values of zeta potential for all formulations - Rheology: weak frequency-dependent and higher viscoelastic behaviors after O phase gelation - Higher values of PV, TBAR, p-Anisidine, and conjugated diene during storage, especially after O gelation - ↑ Induction period after antioxidant addition, higher effectiveness of α-tocopherol than gallic acid based on polar paradox |
[2] |
- Black chokeberry pomace extract (BCEP) (15–35%) - NaCl (0.5%) |
- Rapeseed oil - PGPR (3%) |
- Milk protein solution (14%) | 20:80 | 30:70 | - High thermal stability (100–91.2%) at 4 °C for 60 days - D4,3: ranged from 61.66 μm to 37.65 μm, ↓ D4,3 at higher concentration of BCEP and during storage - ↑ Viscosity at higher concentrations of BCEP - High EE (>95%) during storage - ↓ DPPH• scavenging after 21 days of storage at 4 °C from 36.32–44.50% to 12.12–15.40% - ↑ DPPH• scavenging at higher concentrations of BCEP - ↑ PV six to ten times lower (4.86–7.47) than control DE (47 meq O2 kg−1) during storage at 37 °C for 60 days - ↑ Conjugated dienes and trienes during storage at 37 °C for 60 days less than control DE |
[46] |
- Brassinolide (0.008%) - Gelatin (1%) - NaCl (0.1%) |
- Olive oil - Cinnamon essential oil (2.66%) - PGPR (1.66%) |
- Different emulsifiers including whey protein concentrate (WPC)-gum arabic and WPC - high methoxyl pectin (HMP) at 1:3; 1:1; 3:1 ratio |
10:30 | 10:30 | - Optimized formulation: DE stabilized by WPC-HMP (1:3) with largest particle size (581.30 nm), lowest PDI (0.23) and zeta potential (−40.31 mV), and highest EE of brassinolide (92%) and cinnamon essential oil (88%). - Results of broccoli coating: ↑ Chlorophyll content and ↓ activities of chlorophyllase (9%) and magnesium-dechelatase (24%), and a lower rate of respiration after storage than control broccoli - Activated energy metabolic enzymes (SDH, CCO, H+-ATPase, Ca2+-ATPase), ↑ ATP, and energy charge. |
[49] |
- Murraya koenigii berries extract (MKB) - NaCl (0.6%) |
- Soybean oil - PRPG (6%) |
- WPC (6%) - NaCl (0.6%) |
50:50 | 70:30 | - ↑ Emulsion stability, cooking yield, hardness and lightness of meat batter - ↓ Shrinkage and redness values of meat batter - ↑ G′, G″, and η* of meat batter - The order of TBARS during storage at 4 °C for 9 days: meat batter with vegetable oil > animal fat > control DE > DE and free MKB > MKB-loaded DE - ↑ Oxidation stability of lipid phase and meat batter |
[47] |
- Emblica officinalis (EEO) extract (15–50%) - NaCl (1–2%) |
- Rice bran oil - PGPR (2–4%). |
- Different emulsifiers (0–4%) including low methoxy pectin (LMP), gum Arabic, WPC, SC |
30:70 | 30:70 | - Optimized DE: 2% NaCl, 50% EEO, 4% PGPR, 2% LMP - D4,3: 72.95 µm, high EE (>90%), ↓ during storage - Viscosity: 0.715 Pa.s, ↓ during storage - Zeta potential: −32.17 mV, ↓ during storage - ↑ Encapsulation efficiency at higher EEO concentration - ↑ Antioxidant stability than free extract - ↓ Antioxidant stability after 3 months at cold storage less than free extract (↓ ABTS of control and DE from 7872 and 7473 to 753 and 2969 mM TE g−1, respectively) |
[45] |
- Catechin (750 µg/mL) - Gelatin (3%)-NaCl (2%) - Ascorbic acid (0.2%) |
- Olive oil - PGPR (6%) - Curcumin (0.1%) |
- Tween 80 (1%) - Ascorbic acid (0.2%) - NaCl (2%) |
25:75 | 25:75 | - D4,3: ↓ from ≈3.88 for the blank to ≈2.8–3.0 µm for curcumin and/or catechin-loaded as well as co-delivery DE - Zeta potential ≈ −20 mV - EE: 88% for curcumin, 97% for catechin, >80% for co-delivery DE. - Loading efficiency: 0.1% for curcumin, 0.075% for catechin, 0.175% for co-delivery DE - In vitro release: controlled release of curcumin from curcumin- and co-loaded DE, burst release of catechin from catechin- and co-loaded DE (≈30% within 30 min and >45% within 1 h) - In vitro bioaccessibility: ≈72% for curcumin-loaded, 68% for curcumin in co-delivery DE, ≈16% for free curcumin, ≈60% for catechin-loaded, ≈54% co-delivery DE, and ≈10% for free catechin |
[50] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- Nattokinase (20%) | - Soybean oil - PGPR (6%) |
- SPI (1%) - Polyglutamic acid (PGA) (1%) - Complex SPI:PGA (1%) at different ratios (5:1, 3:1, 1:1, 1:3, 1:5) |
30:70 | 30:70 | - Smaller droplet size of complexes than individual SPI and PGA - Higher zeta potential of complexes than individual SPI and PGA by stronger repulsive force - Highest apparent viscosity for the 1:5 ratio complex - Highest EE (97.19) for the 1:3 ratio complex - ↓ Release rate of FFA for in vitro simulated digestion for complex-stabilized DEs - Highest bioavailability (80.69%) for the 1:3 ratio complex |
[51] |
- Lactase (100 U) - Potassium phosphate buffer (0.02 M) |
- Corn oil - PGPR 90 (0.5%) |
- Gelatin (5%) - Gum Arabic (5%) |
33:66 | - Not mentioned | - Optimum core solution concentration: 1% - ↑ Storage stability due to the low water activity (≤0.4) and particle size (≤93.52 μm) - ↑ EE (≥98.67%) - ↑ Significant pH stability, temperature stability, and storage stability of enzymes compared to the free-form - ↓ and ↑ of both release rate and lactase activity in SGF and SIF, respectively, after encapsulation |
[54] |
Nattokinase (20 mg/mL) | - Different oils (MCT, liquid paraffin) and emulsifiers (10–25%) including Abil EM90, Arlacel P135, andSpan 80 |
Labrasol (10–20%) | 30:70 40:60 70:30 |
10:90 20:80 30:70 40:60 50:50 60:40 70:30 80:20 90:10 |
- ↑ Emulsifying capacity of MCT as oil phase and EM90 as emulsifier - Optimized condition: 20% Abil EM90, 15% Labrasol, and 40% W1 - ↓ D4,3: 5.3 to 4.7 μm after 30 days - Initial EE: 86.8% - ↓ EE to 82.6% after 30 days at 25 °C - Improved sustained in vitro release (30% after 8 h) - The release rate in vitro under pH values: 1.21 > H2O > 4.50 > 6.80 - ↑ Blood clotting time in mice at all doses (111.3–194.1 s) as compared with free forms - Enhanced carrageenan-induced tail thrombosis outcome |
[53] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- L. acidophilus (5.1 × 107 CFU/g) - NaCl (0.15 M) |
- MCT oil - Fish oil (0–10%) - PGPR (1–5%) |
- Different emulsifiers including SPI, (0.5–2%) and SA (0.25–1%) | 10:90 20:80 30:70 40:60 |
30:70 40:60 50:50 60:40 |
- ↑ W1 from 10% to 30% led to ↑ stability—the only stable DE in 7 days at 4 °C: at 10% W1 - ↑ Fish oil and SA led to ↑ viability in SGF and SIF - ↓ GI release by SA and fish oil - ↑ Cell count and ability to adhere to the intestinal mucosa by the addition of fish oil - ↑ Viscosity, stability, and probiotic EE in the presence of SA - The highest EE 0–7.5% fish oil, 1.5% SPI, 0.27–0.75% SA - ↑ SPI and ↑ SA led to ↑ viscosity - ↑ SA led to ↓ size |
[58] |
- L. plantarum (11 log CFU/g) - Different emulsifiers including gelatin (2%), - Alginate (2%)/CaCl2 (100 mM), tragacanth gum (2%), carrageenan (2%)/KCl (100 mM) |
- Olive oil - PGPR (6%) |
- Tween 80 (4%) | 20:80 | 40:60 | - Size range: from 6.4 (tragacanth) to 14.7 µm (alginate) - Zeta range: −21.1 to −46.2 mV - The least stability was for carrageenan (>80%) - The highest EE (97.4%) by carrageenan - ↑ Heat protection by gelling agents - Best gelling agent: tragacanth due to increased viability at low pH and heating to 28.05% and 16.74%, respectively - The highest viscosity by alginate |
[60] |
- L. plantarum F1 - Different prebiotics including mannitol (2%) and trehalose (2%) - Guar gum (0.5%) - Tween 80 (5%) |
- Sunflower oil - Lecithin (5%) - Lipophilic sea buckthorn pomace extract (LSBPE, 5%) |
- Alginate (2%) - Tween 80 (5%) |
40:60 | 40:60 | - Best condition: Mannitol as prebiotic due to high encapsulation yield (82.19%), good cell survival rate (76.99%), and low chemical degradation of the oil (PV: 3.8 meq O2/kg fat) after 42 days Size: 2.2–2.3 µm - ↑ Oxidative stability by LSBPE - ↓ 1.02 and 5.79 log encapsulated and free cells in SGF, respectively - ↑ Gelation time led to ↑ cell count and gel hardness |
[59] |
- L. plantarum (10.4 log CFU/g) - Sucrose (10 g/L) - Glucose (4.6 g/L) |
- Corn oil - PGPR (1.5%) |
- Tween 80 (0.75%) - Tara gum (1.5%) |
30:70 | 30:70 | - Size: 12 µm - Pseudoplastic behavior (index 0.63) - EE: 86% (7.92 log CFU/mL) - Results of mango dessert incorporating 25% DE: - ↑ Cell by glucose and lactose - ↑ Viability in DE - Low protection in the small intestine - 3.85 log CFU/mL count in large intestinal |
[61] |
- L. reuteri (10.69 log CFU/mL) | - MCT - PGPR (5%) |
- Poloxamer 407 (2.5%) | 20:80 | 20:80 | - Size: 13.4 µm, no changes in size in 30 days - EE: 7.23 Log CFU/mL during cold storage - ↓ Stability lower than control (from 6.18 to <1 Log CFU/mL) compared to encapsulated bacteria (from 7.23 to 2.82 Log CFU/mL). - 70% survival in GI for encapsulated bacteria - No changes in cell count after 3 days at 6 °C - 5.2 and 2.82 log CFU/mL on the 15th and 30th days |
[55] |
- L. Plantarum - Fructooligosaccharides (2%) |
- MCT - PGPR (0.5–5%) |
- Na2EDTA - CaCl2 - Alginate (2%) - WPI - EGCG conjugates (0.5 to 5%) |
20:80 40:60 60:40 80:20 |
50:50 | - ↓ Size with ↑ PGPR, ↓ oil phase, and ↑particle conjugate - ↓ pH led to ↑ G′ - Hydrogel state at pH ≤ 4 - Low loss in GI (from 7.79 × 107 to 7.39 × 107 CFU/mL) at PGPR content of 5% |
[57] |
Bifidobacterium lactis subsp. lactis BB-12 (11.35 log CFU/g) - Glycose (5%) - Inulin (2%) |
- Olive pomace oil - Span 20 (2.5%) - Tween 40 (2.5%) |
- Different encapsulating agents including SA (2%), pectin (1%), gelatin (1%), casein (1%), and gum Arabic (1%) | 20:80 | 15:85 | - Zeta: (−0.14)–(−3.36) mV - SA as the best encapsulating agent - Results of coating of beads with chitosan with two methods: EE: 72.48–81.68%, 68.6–86.1% survival rate in GI- >106 CFU/g count after 1 month, combining the extrusion/DE emulsification as compared to cells encapsulated through conventional extrusion (survival rate 46.8%) after 15 days - 80% viability at acidic pHs - Higher viscosity (283.4 cP) for alginate-pectin DE |
[56] |
- L. plantarum - Aguamiel or sweet whey - Panodan SKD (1.6%) |
- Canola oil - PGPR 90 (6.4%) |
- Mesquite gum (13.2%) - Maltodextrin DE10 (3.4%) - Gum Arabic (3.4%) |
30:70 | 30:70 | - Larger size with aguamiel (than sweet whey) - Small size increment after 14 days - Results of cheese preparation incorporating DE: ↑ Cell viability with DE (compared to free cells in cheese), ↑ heat protection by aguamiel DE (than sweet whey DE) - After melting, ↓ Log CFU/g by 2.18, 1.42, and 1.94 for control cheese, cheese formulated with DE/sweet whey and cheese formulated with DE/aguamiel, respectively, - ↑ Viability at low and high pH values in DE (especially aguamiel DE) |
[62] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- NaCl (0.25–1%) | - Sunflower oil - PGPR (6%) - Monoglyceride (8%) |
- Modified starch (4%) | 20:80 | 40:60 | - ↑ EE by oil gelation - The results of preparation of a low-salt burger: - ↓ 25% salt by replacing DE in the burger with desirable saltiness ↑ Antioxidant stability and ↓ color changes during storage in the presence of cinnamaldehyde in the oil phase - ↓ Cooking loss by adding DE - Undesirable changes in textural properties by adding DE |
[72] |
- Bitter peptide (50%) - Tartrazine (2%) - Gelatin (0–2%) |
- Palm oil - Camellia oil - PGPR (4%) |
- Gelatin (0–2%) - SC (2.5%) |
40:60 | 40:60 | - Size range: 9.38–52.3 µm - ↑ Gelatin led to ↓ size - ↑ Viscosity and ↑ physical stability by gelatin - EE > 80% by gelation - ↑ EE and ↓ release by W1 gelation - ↑ Bitter taste masking by W2 gelation - ↓ Peptide release ↑ gelatin |
[65] |
- 2,3-diacetyl - Citric acid - Sodium sulphate buffer - SA(0.5%) |
- Soybean oil - Beeswax (BW, 0–8%) - PGPR (2%) |
- Bacterial cellulose (1%) | 30:70 | 50:50 | - ↑ Size by ↑ BW up to 4% - G′ < G″ at BW 2–4% - ↑ BW led to ↑ stress at the crossover point and shear thinning behavior - ↑ BW led to ↑ viscosity and ↑ friction coefficient - ↑ BW led to ↓ ∆BS and ↓ thickness, ↓ osmotic pressure and ↑ stability at 6–8% - BW 6–8% led to ↓ aroma release with no difference at 25 and 37 °C, extended aroma release by BW (smallest decreasing amplitude for 8%) |
[68] |
- MgCl2 (5%) - Na-caseinate (0.5%) |
- Olive oil - PGPR (1–6%) |
- Saccharose (≤15% of total DE) - Na-caseinate (12.5%) |
40:60 | 40:60 35:65 30:70 |
- Smaller droplets at 40:60 (8.58 µm) - Shear thinning and pseudoplastic behavior (n < 1) - The lowest viscosity at 40:60 - The lowest hydrolysis degree (of oil) in GI at 35:65 - ↑ Sweetness of DE (40:60) compared to O/W by closely 75% |
[64] |
- Mg3(C6H5O7)2 (0.025 M) - MgSO4 (0.075 M) - MgCl2 (0.075 M) - Mg(C3H5O3)2 (0.075 M) - Mg(C3H5O3)2 (0.075 M) + Lactose (0.225 M) - CaCl2 (0.075 M) - NaCl (0.075 M) - CsCl (0.075 M) - CsCl (0.15 M) |
- Miglyol oil - PGPR (5%) |
SC (3.1%) Lactose (0.125 to 3 M) |
40:60 | 10:90 | - Anion and cation affect the release rate of salts - ↑ Release of each encapsulated salt from W1 to W2 during storage - ↑ Complexation constant of Mg2+ with its counterion led to ↓ the release - ↓ Hydration enthalpy of Mg2+ counter ion led to ↓ the release - ↑ Release rate for chloride ions in case of monovalent ions (Cs+ and Na+) than divalent ions |
[73] |
- Fish protein hydrolysate (12%) - NaCl (4%) - Vitamin B12 (4%) |
- Fish oil - PGPR (6–10%) |
- WPC - Inulin - WP/inulin ratios: 1/1, 1.608/1, 2.5/1, 3.39/1, 4/1 |
30:70 | 50:50 61.65:38.34 71.47:28.57 77.22:22.78 80:20 |
- The optimum parameters: 2:1 ratio of wall/core, 2.12:1 ratio of WPC/Inulin, and 6.28% PGPR ↓ WPC/inulin and ↑ PGPR led to ↓ release of the vitamin - ↓ WPC/inulin, ↓ W1O/W2, and ↑ PGPR led to ↓ creaming - ↓ WPC/inulin and ↑ PGPR led to ↑ EE - Interaction between W1/O/W2 and WPC/inulin led to ↓ encapsulation stability of the vitamin - WPC/inulin and W1O/W2 led to positive and negative effects on the encapsulation stability of the vitamin - Results of fortified yogurt with DE - Optimized DE condition for sensory analysis led 2:1 mass ratio of W1/O to W2, 2.12:1 ratio of WPC to inulin, and 6.28% PGPR The addition of a flavoring agent was recommended |
[67] |
- NaCl (6%) - Z. rouxii (105 CFU/mL) |
- Soybean oil - PGPR (2%) |
- NaCl (6%) Tween 80 (1%) - T. halophilus (106 CFU/mL) |
20:80 | 20:80 | - The results of reduced NaCl and/or substitution with KCl in soy sauce fermentation: - Non-newtonian behavior - ↑ Brine to koji led to ↓ viscosity - ↓ Size during fermentation (27.88 to 11.40) - ↓ Size by adding DE to moromi - Partial NaCl substitution led to ↑ T. halophilus growth and ↑ lactic acid - ↓ NaCl led to ↑ T. halophilus growth to 8.88 log CFU/mL, faster sugar depletion, and ↑ lactic acid production. - Simultaneous incubation led to ↑ T.halophilus growth and production of volatile compounds |
[66] |
- Gelatin (10%) - NaCl (0.4%) |
- Sunflower Oil - PGPR (4–9%) |
- WPI (1%) - NaCl (0.2%) |
30:70 40:60 50:50 |
30:70 50:50 |
- 70% W2 and ↓ oil content (↑ % fat replacing) led to ↓ droplet size, ↓ viscosity, and ↑ expelled gelatin in W2 - 50% W2 and ↓ oil led to ↑ expelled gelatin in W2, ↑ viscosity and ↑ yield - Improvement or no change in sensory properties up to 40% fat replaced by DE (with gelled W1) |
[74] |
- Mulberry anthocyanins (0.5%) | - Walnut oil - PGPR (6%) |
- Pectin (1%) - Proclin 300 (0.05%) - GDL (0–2%) |
40:60 | 40:60 | - No delamination of DEs after 28 d of storage at 4 °C as compared to 25 °C - Particle size: ↑ from 625 to 1781 and 2316 nm after storage at 4 °C and 25 °C, respectively; - Zeta potential: ↑ from −48 to −40 and −25 mV after storage at 4 °C and 25 °C, respectively; - ↑ Yellowness and ↓ reddishne ssafter storage at 4 °C and 25 °C, respectively; - EE: ↓ from 95.3% to 93.2% and 88.9% after storage at 4 °C and 25 °C, respectively - Rheology: ↑ G′ and G″ after the addition of GDL during the frequency sweep test, suggesting gel-like behavior - ↑ 3D printing ability by GDL, particularly at 1.6% |
[70] |
- WPI (2%) - Lutein (0.002%) |
- Sunflower oil - PGPR (4%) - Lutein (0.002%) |
- WPI (2%) - Xanthan gum (0.5%) |
10:90 | 20:80 | - Droplet size of DEs: 40–49 µm - ↑ Lutein stability against light - ↑ Lutein bioaccessibility after in vitro digestion in DEs rather than W/O - ↓ Lutein content from 18.8 to 12.3 µg/g and 19.9 to 11.3 µg/g after 14 days for W/O-L/W and W-L/O/W, respectively. - ↑ Lutein recovery (99%) after digestion for W/O-L/W and W-L/O/W - The highest color stability in W-L/O/W |
[69] |
- Sample A: NaCl (0.1 M), glycerol (3%), Opuntia stricta var. dillenii (OPD extract; 750 mg) - Sample B: OPD extract (750 mg), gelatin (6%) |
- Sample A: MCT, PGPR (5%) - Sample B: MCT, PGPR (14%), phosphatidylcholine (4%) |
- Sample A: NaCl (0.1 M), Tween 20 (2%), - Sample B: NaCl (1.3%), glycerol (13%), and a mixture of caseinate (3%), guar gum (0.175%), and gum Arabic (0.265%) |
- Sample A: 25:75 - Sample B 30:70 |
Sample A: 25:75 - Sample B 30:70 |
- Higher a* (red to green) value of sample B than sample A Zeta = −32.7 (sample A) and −49.2 (sample B) - The lowest size (1.75 µm) and stability for sample A - EE: 68.2–98%, sample B was more efficient - In vitro gastro-intestinal digestion: ↑ and ↓particle size for sample A and B, respectively. - ↑ Bioaccessibility of the individual betanins and phenolic compounds after encapsulation (67.1 to 253.1%) in comparison with the non-encapsulated ones (30.1 to 64.3%), except for neobetanin |
[75] |
- Gelatin (10%) - Phycocyanin (0.2%) |
- Soybean oil - PGPR (4%) - Astaxanthin (2%) |
- SC (3%) - Gellan gum (0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, and 0.7%) |
20:80 | 60:40 | - Droplet size: ↓ from 14.98 μm for DE without gellan gum to 7.11 μm at a concentration of 0.7% due to the ↑ viscosity of W2 -Rheology: ↑ G′ and ↑ G″ after gellan gum addition - ↑ Water holding capacity at higher gellan gum concentrations - ↓ serum separation, ↑ ionic and heat stability at gellan > 0.3% - ↑ EE with ↑ the concentration of gellan gum (90.82% for astaxanthin at 0.5% and 94.1% for phycocyanin at 0.7%) - ↑ Color stability as evidenced by no color change after 10 days In vitro release: <25% for phycocyanin and astaxanthin in SGF and >60% in SIF - Successful pH-controlled release - Significant ↑ bioaccessibility of phycocyanin (12.54%) and astaxanthin (14.27%) in DE and DE gels |
[13] |
- Gelatin (5%) - Betanin |
- MCT - PGPR (5%) - Curcumin (0.75 mg/mL) |
- Sugar beet pectin-bovine serum albumin Pickering nanoparticles (0.5−2%) | 20:80 | 10:90 to 90:10 | - D4,3: ↓ from 95.7 to 34.8 μm by ↑ Pickering nanoparticles from 0.5% to 2%, respectively. ↑ by increasing volume fraction of primary emulsion; - Rheology: change from liquid-like behavior at 0.5% and 1.0% Pickering nanoparticles to gel-like behavior - EE: 84.1% and 65.3% for curcumin and betanin, respectively; - LE: <20% and >20% for curcumin and betanin, respectively; - ↑ Color stability in DEs as compared to free forms of colorants - ↑ Storage stability in DEs (57.9% to 81.5% (curcumin) and 43.5% to 76.6% (betanin)) as compared to free forms - ↑ Extent and rate of FFA released after encapsulation as compared to free MCT - ↑ Bioaccessibility of betanin (42.7%) and curcumin (53.5%) as compared to free forms |
[71] |
- Grape seed proanthocyanidin (GSP; 2 mg/mL) - Sucrose (3%) |
- Olive oil - PGPR (5%) |
- WPI (3%) - Konjac glucomannan (KGM) (0–1.75%) |
30:70 | 30:70 | - ↑ WHC, rheological and texture properties after KGM addition - ↑ Heat stability of GSP with ↑ KGM concentrations - Freeze–thaw stability: ↓ syneresis and GSP retention with up to 1.5% KGM - The highest UV stability 1.5% KGM - In vitro digestion: ↓ hydrolysis of protein and oil droplets and ↑ bioavailability of GSP after KGM addition - ↑ EE and encapsulation stability and ↓ LE, of GSP after 14 days with ↑ KGM - Color: ↑ L* and b* values and ↓ a* values with ↑ KGM |
[76] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- Monascus pigment - Flaxseed gum (0.75%) |
- Soybean oil - PGPR (6%) |
- Pea protein isolate (5%) | 20:80 | 40:60 | - ↑ Flaxseed gum led to ↑ size, ↓ instability index and ↓ mean square displacement - Results of sausage properties incorporating 0–30% DEs: Texture: ↓ hardness and ↑ cohesiveness by fat replacing with DE, the highest chewiness and gumminess at a 30% DE level - ↓ Lipid from 11.22% to 5.09%, ↑ protein from 15.77% to 17.02%, ↑ PUFA from 23.36% to 59.63%, ↑ WHC and oxidative stabilitycompared control - ↑ Lightness by fat replacing with DE |
[80] |
- Full-fat almond emulsion containing almond protein isolate (3.5%), almond oil (4%), and sugar (4.5%) | - Almond oil - PGPR (2%) |
- Full-fat almond emulsion containing almond protein isolate (3.5%), almond oil (4%), and sugar (4.5%) | 40:60 | 20:80 | - Results of set-type yoghurt-like almond-based gels incorporating 0–30% DE: No differences in size and cohesiveness at different DE contents - ↓ Water holding capacity, ↓ hardness, and ↑ syneresis by ↑ DE content - The highest viscosity at 30% DE - No difference in sensory properties of low-fat (containing DE) and full-fat yoghurt |
[79] |
- Gellan gum (0.4%) - CaCl2 (0.5%) |
- Refined pork oil - PGPR (3%) |
- SC (0.1%) | 40:60 | 80:20 | - Size: 5.38 µm - Results of sausage properties incorporating 0 and 20% DE - ↓ Fat and energy values and ↑ water compared to high- and low-animal fat sausages - Cooking loss (9.63%) less than high-fat sausages - Texture: equal adhesiveness and springiness in all sausages, ↓ hardness than high-fat sausages |
[77] |
- Hydrolysable tannin (10%) - Phosphate buffer |
- Sunflower oil (4%) - Lecithin (2%) - span 80 (2%) |
- Gum Arabic (3%) | 20:80 | 40:60 | - Results of fat-reduced short-dough biscuits incorporating 0–60% DE: - ↑ hardness, ↓ biscuit height, ↑ spread ratio, ↑ antioxidant capacity, and ↓ loss of hydrolysable tannin with ↑ DE - The highest astringent flavor masking and highest acceptability by replacing 40% fat with DE |
[78] |
- WPI(10–25%) - Rice protein (RP, 10–25%) - Pumpkin seed protein (PSP, 10–25%) |
- PGPR (1%) - Span 80 (1%) |
- Milk | 40:60 | 5:95 | - Higher viscosity (1.8 Pas) and serum index (5.2%) for RP-stabilized DE - The largest and the smallest size related to RP and WPI-stabilized DE - Results of fat-reduced cheese incorporating 5% DE: ↑ Hardness, ↑ cheese diameter, ↑ oil loss (except in WPI cheese) than full-fat cheese |
[81] |
- NaCl (0.6%) | - Olive oil - PGPR (6.4%) |
- SC (10%) - NaCl (0.6%) |
50:50 | 70:30 | - Results of model meet emulsion incorporating 0–30% DE: ↑ Fat replacing by DE led to ↓ jelly and fat separation, ↑ WHC, ↓ total expressible fat - ↑ TBAR after 60 days of storage, the lowest TBAR at 10% fat replacement by DE - ↑ DE led to ↓ hardness, ↑ cohesiveness, and ↓ gumminess and chewiness than full-fat control |
[82] |
- NaCl (0.6%) | - Olive oil - PGPR (6%) |
- SC (0.5%)/ - NaCl (0.6%) - WPC (6%) |
20:80 | 40:60 | - ↑ Size by WPC (compared to SC), wider size distribution during storage for SC DE - ↑ Thermal stability and ↑ creaming index at 0 °C compared to 7 °C - Results of meat system incorporating 0–34% DE: ↓ Total fluid released by adding DE - Similar hardness, cohesiveness, and springiness for meat systems with/without DE - ↑ Chewiness in fat reduced WPI DE - ↑ Lightness by adding DE |
[83] |
W1 | O | W2 | Phase Ratio | Remarkable Results | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W1:O | W1/O:W2 | |||||
- NaCl (5.84 mg/mL) - Crocin (65 mg/mL) |
- Cinnamaldehyde (33%) -PGPR (8%) |
-WPI (8.5%) | 50:50 | 30:70 | - Persian gum-based film: - ↓ Opacity by incorporating DE than free bioactive - ↓ Moisture content, water solubility, WVP, and swelling compared to the free and single-emulsion addition strategy - ↑ Contact angle more than control but less than the free and single-emulsion addition - ↑ Tensile strength and elongation at break as compared to control film and free and single emulsion addition - ↑ UV and visible barrier properties, ↑ photostability of crocin against fluorescent and UV lights, ↑ thermal and pH stability of crocin and cinnamaldehyde, ↑ antioxidant activity after 14 days compared to free bioactives |
[84] |
- “Pitanga” leaf hydroethanolic extract (10%) | - Soybean oil - PGPR (3%) |
- Tween 80 (3%) - SC (0.5%) |
20:80 | 40:60 | - Gelatin, chitosan, and gelatin–chitosan composite films: - ↑ Opacity - ↓ Roughness, contact angle, solubility, and WVP - ↑ Tensile strength and elastic modulus for gelatin and chitosan-based films but ↓ for gelatin–chitosan film, ↑ elongation at break for both gelatin and gelatin–chitosan films - Inhibition of bacterial growth just below the disks - ↑ Folin–Ciocalteu reducing capacity and antioxidant activity |
[86] |
- Pitanga leaf hydroethanolic (10%) | - Soybean oil - PGPR (3%) |
- Tween 80 (3%) - SC (0.5%) |
20:80 | 40:60 | - Gelatin, chitosan, and gelatin–chitosan composite films with nanocellulose (NC): ↓ Moisture content, solubility, WVP and ↑ opacity, tensile strength, and elongation at break after DE addition - ↑ FCRC, ABTS•+, FRAP after DE addition - Antimicrobial activity only in G-based film incorporating DE against S. aureus in the region of contact of the film - Light barrier order: gelatin-NC/DE > gelatin–chitosan-NC/DE > C-NC/DE > gelatin-NC > chitosan-NC > gelatin–chitosan-NC |
[87] |
- | - Sunflower oil - Lecithin (0.7%) |
- Coffee Byproducts (pectin and cellulose (3:7); 0.8–2.4%) - SC (0.5) |
15:85 | 5:95 | - Coffee byproduct-based film: Droplet size: 0.38–1.23 μm under the different times of homogenization - ↑ Thickness (0.15 to 0.25 mm), transparency (3.10–5.28%), WVP (3.76–15.96 g mm/m2hKpa), tensile strength (1.26–1.79 MPa), and elongation (3.40–5.20%) with ↑ polymer concentration - Antioxidant activity: (EC50; kg film/mol DPPH): ↑ from 2.47 to 4.35 with ↑ polymer concentration |
[88] (2023) |
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods13030485