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Plant-based biopesticides are attracting considerable attention in this context due to their target specificity, ecofriendliness, biodegradability, and safety for humans and other life forms. Among all the relevant biopesticides, plant essential oils (PEOs) or their active components are being widely explored against weeds, pests, and microorganisms.
Source of PEO or Its Active Component |
Encapsulation/ Emulsifying Agent |
Method(s) Used for Encapsulation | Biological Target | Effects | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bioherbicides | |||||
Satureja hortensis L. | Carbohydrate and protein natural polymers (gum arabic /gelatin, apple pectin, and gelatin) and cross-linkers (citric acid and transglutaminase enzyme) | Complex coacervation | Amaranthus retroflexus L. and Solanum lycopersicum L. | (a) Inhibition in germination and growth of A. retroflexus (b) Inhibition was comparable to chemical herbicide (Metribuzin) |
[16] |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. | Tween 80 | Ultrasonic emulsification | Phalaris minor Retz., Avena ludoviciana Durieu, Rumex dentatus L., and Medicago denticulata Willd | (a) Stability of nanoemulsions persistent after 30 days of storage (b) Inhibition of target weeds at as low as 0.05 wt.% dose of nanoemulsion (c) Individual components of PEO showed weed growth at high doses |
[17] |
Carum carvi L. and Mentha piperita L. |
Commercial multifunctional adjuvant ATPOLAN BIO 80 EC | Emulsification | Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. | (a) Foliar injuries were reported and photosynthetic efficiency was reduced in weed plant at 2.5% adjuvant dose (b) Crop plant was unaffected |
[18] |
Bioinsecticides | |||||
Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle | Tween 80 | Emulsification | Oryzaephilus surinamensis L. | (a) Nanoemulsions displayed greater adult mortality than pure oil in both male and female adults (b) LC50 value of nanoemulsions was significantly less than that of pure oil depicting 50% mortality at lower concentrations of nanoemulsions |
[19] |
Pimpinella anisum L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., and Mentha piperita L. | Tween 80 | Self-emulsification | Bactrocera oleae Gmelin | (a) No residual toxicity reported (b) All nanoformulations were capable of reducing oviposition punctures (c) P. anisum displayed the highest percentage of repellent activity followed by F. vulgare and M. piperita |
[20] |
Rosmarinus officinalis L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Mentha piperita L. | Lipid: Softisan Surfactants: Kolliphor RH40 and Labrafil |
Phase inversion temperature (PIT) method | Aphis gossypii (synonym of Aphis forbesi weed), Spodoptera littoralis Boisduval, and Tuta absoluta Meyrick |
(a) Bioassay confirmed high mortality in A. gossypii treated with oil-loaded lipid carriers (b) Reduction in progeny was observed. With no mortality observed, the feeding activity of S. littoralis was reduced with L. angustifolia and R. officinalis carriers (c) No effect was observed on T. absoluta |
[21] |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Mentha piperita L., and Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck | 5% Tween | Spontaneous emulsification | Rhyzopetha dominica Fabricius | (a) All the PEOs displayed repellent activity against the tested storage pest. F. vulgare oil displayed the least activity (b) Insects recovered after 24 h of treatment and habituation was validated |
[4] |
Baccharis reticularia DC. and oil components (limonene, α-pinene, and β-pinene) | Nonionic surfactant (mixture of sorbitan monooleate, polysorbate 80, and/or polysorbate 20) | Low-energy titration | Tribolium castaneum Herbst | (a) Both the PEO and its components displayed good repellent activity at 8.8 μg cm−2 | [8] |
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck | Silica (SiO2) | Sol–gel microencapsulation | Spodoptera littoralis Boisduval and Aphis gossypii (synonym of Aphis forbesi Weed) |
(a) Insecticidal activity against cotton leafworm (S. littoralis) (b) Reduction in the fertility and number of A. gossypii offsprings |
[22] |
Pimpinella anisum L., Artemisia vulgaris L., Foenicum vulgare Mill., Allium sativum L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Mentha piperita L., Rosmarinus officinalis L., and Salvia officinalis Pall. | 5% Tween 80 | Spontaneous emulsification | Tribolium confusum Duval | (a) All PEOs displayed repellent activity against the tested storage pest (b) With a RC50 value of 0.033 mg, the PEO of P. anisum exhibited maximum repellent activity |
[23] |
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf and Eucalyptus globulus Labill. | Polysorbate 80 | High-energy emulsification | Musca domestica L. and Lucilia cuprina Wiedemann | (a) No adulticidal activity with E. globulus oil (b) Free C. citratus oil displayed better adulticial activity as compared to nanoemulsion; however, the use of nanoemulsion is suitable as it prevents the volatilization and degradation of oil (c) The concentration of nanoemulsion, time of treatment exposure, and encapsulation method play significant roles in mediating adulticidal activity |
[24] |
Lippia multiflora Mold. | 89.75% Hydrolate and 0.25% Chitosan | Low-energy emulsification | Plutella xylostella L., Brevicoryne brassicae L., Hellula undalis Fabricius, Spodoptera exigua Hubner, and Bemisia tabaci Gennadius |
(a) PEO nanoemulsions were tested against synthetic pesticide, i.e., Karate 5 EC (Lambda cyhalothrin 52 gL−1) in two regions of Ivory Coast (b) Treatment with nanoemulsion reduced the damage of cabbage head as compared to synthetic pesticide, thereby signifying better protection against selected insects |
[25] |
Biofungicides | |||||
Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) W.Watson | Lipids (cocoa butter and sesame oil) | Melt emulsification method | Aspergillus nomius Kurtzman, B.W.Horn and Hesselt. | (a) 100% inhibition of A. nomius was displayed by nanostructured lipid carriers | [12] |
d-Limonene | Emulsifiers | Phase transition composition emulsification | Pyricularia oryzae Cavara, Rhizoctonia solani J.G.Kühn, Colletortrichum gloeosporiodes (Penz.) Penz. and Sacc., and Phomopsis amygdali (Delacr.) J.J.Tuset and M.T.Portilla. |
(a) Stability of nanoemulsions was tested and found to increase with an increase in dose of emulsifier (b) Emulsifier (EL40) displayed the highest stability © Inhibition of growth of tested fungal pathogens was reported |
[26] |
Cinnamomum verum J.Presl, Thymus vulgaris L., and Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden and Betche) Cheel |
Crodamol GTCC and polysorbate 80 | Phase inversion composition method (PIC) and ultrasonication | Fusarium culmorum (Wm.G.Sm.) Sacc., Phytophthora cactorum (Lebert and Cohn) J.Schröt. Trichophyton mentagrophytes (C.P.Robin) Sabour., Microsporum gypseum (E.Bodin) Guiart and Grigoraki, Aspergillus niger Tiegh., and Scopulariopsis brevicaulis (Sacc.) Brainier |
(a) Fungicidal activities of pure oil, macroemulsions (PIC-based), and nanoemulsions (ultrasonication-based) were reported (b) Nanoemulsions prepared using high-energy ultrasonication showed better fungicidal activities (c) Among the different PEOs studied, M. alternifolia oil displayed the best activity |
[27] |