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Simón-Piqueras, J.�.; Gil-Madrona, P.; Zamorano-García, D.; Torre-Maroto, M.D.L.; Fernández-Bustos, J.G. Self-Determined Regulation/Achievement Goals/Sport Commitment in Masters Swimmers. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/50696 (accessed on 08 July 2024).
Simón-Piqueras J�, Gil-Madrona P, Zamorano-García D, Torre-Maroto MDL, Fernández-Bustos JG. Self-Determined Regulation/Achievement Goals/Sport Commitment in Masters Swimmers. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/50696. Accessed July 08, 2024.
Simón-Piqueras, Juan Ángel, Pedro Gil-Madrona, David Zamorano-García, Miriam De La Torre-Maroto, Juan Gregorio Fernández-Bustos. "Self-Determined Regulation/Achievement Goals/Sport Commitment in Masters Swimmers" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/50696 (accessed July 08, 2024).
Simón-Piqueras, J.�., Gil-Madrona, P., Zamorano-García, D., Torre-Maroto, M.D.L., & Fernández-Bustos, J.G. (2023, October 23). Self-Determined Regulation/Achievement Goals/Sport Commitment in Masters Swimmers. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/50696
Simón-Piqueras, Juan Ángel, et al. "Self-Determined Regulation/Achievement Goals/Sport Commitment in Masters Swimmers." Encyclopedia. Web. 23 October, 2023.
Self-Determined Regulation/Achievement Goals/Sport Commitment in Masters Swimmers
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/bs13100828

Self-determination theory (SDT) is the predominant theory of human motivation. SDT explains how human motivation can be affected by personal, social and environmental factors. Achievement goals are defined as the reasons or aims that drive an individual’s behaviour. This theory holds that the aim of an individual in achievement situations is to show ability, and that, depending on what such individuals consider achievement, they will present different types of goals. The theory of sport commitment defines the concept as the psychological state representing the resolve to continue participating in sport.

Masters swimmers sport masters motivation

1. Introduction

1.1. The Masters Swimming Phenomenon

Since the late 1970s and early 1980s, a number of national swimming federations have promoted competitive activity in the different specialties they are responsible for (swimming, artistic swimming, diving, water polo and open water swimming). These activities are aimed at athletes aged from 20–30 years (depending on the criteria of the federation and sport specialty) to practically unlimited ages. Such athletes are known as Masters swimmers (hereon in masters). In recent decades, World Aquatics itself (formerly known as FINA, the International Swimming Federation) has fostered specialties in Masters athletes through organizing world championships. The participation of masters in such events has increased exponentially [1], with approximately 10,000 athletes from more than 100 countries participating in the last world championships. It is thus a truly global phenomenon [2], which World Aquatics relates to the promotion of physical activity and health, friendship, understanding and competition between adult athletes, with no age limit imposed on participation in the programme [2].

1.2. Self-Determined Regulation Theory

Self-determination theory (SDT) is currently the predominant theory of human motivation [3]. SDT explains how human motivation can be affected by personal, social and environmental factors [4][5]. It is composed of different sub-theories, which, due to the complexity of the proposed framework, help examine different aspects of motivation. One of the main sub-theories is known as Organismic integration theory [3], which addresses the continuum of self-determination, and suggests that the degree of self-determination involved in behaviours depends on the social factors that hinder the integration of behavioural regulation [6]. This sub-theory posits six types of motivation, according to the degree of self-determination. One of these types is intrinsic regulation, which is related to the satisfaction involved in performing an activity. Another type is extrinsic motivation, which is divided into integrated regulation, which links an activity to lifestyle, values and goals; identified regulation, which is associated with the benefits of the activity; introjected regulation, characterized by feelings of guilt or pride; and external regulation, which involves rewards or prizes. The final type is amotivation, which involves a participant finding no sense in continuing to engage in an activity [5].
SDT provides a broad theoretical framework to understand the conditions that promote high motivation in sport [7]. Broadly speaking, research has fundamentally focused on aspects related to the differentiation between intrinsic and extrinsic regulations. As for sports in general, the results are mixed. Some studies show the prevalence of external regulation, which helps explain that competition and its rewards alone can foster an increase in practice [8], while others report the key role of more self-determined types of regulation, suggesting there are more significant factors than competitive prizes [9]. Meanwhile, other approaches point to regulation being an underlying construct that is present to varying degrees in certain moments of the pursuit of sport [10][11].

1.3. Achievement Goal Theory

Another theory widely used to explain motivation in sports is that known as achievement goal theory (AGT). Achievement goals are defined as the reasons or aims that drive an individual’s behaviour [12]. This theory holds that the aim of an individual in achievement situations is to show ability, and that, depending on what such individuals consider achievement, they will present different types of goals [13][14]. AGT has evolved from dichotomous models (mastery goals and performance goals), through trichotomous models including goal approach–avoidance [15], 2 × 2 models with the achievement goal being the aim used to guide behaviour [16], to the 3 × 2 model [17]. This latter framework proposes three evaluation standards, task-based, self-based and others, which, together with the valence of competence, encompass six types of achievement goals [18]. In terms of sport, recent research emphasizes the role of trichotomous models and, specifically, the role of mastery goals (personal improvement) [19][20], establishing that perceived effort may be directly related to mastery achievement goals, fostering, in turn, sport commitment [21]. This model includes performance–approach goals (being better than the others) and performance–avoidance goals (avoiding being worse than others) [22].

1.4. The Theory of Sport Commitment

The theory of sport commitment defines the concept as the psychological state representing the resolve to continue participating in sport [23]. Since its initial formulation, the model has been expanded to include psychosocial aspects of sport engagement, such as enjoyment, personal investment, opportunities for involvement, social constraints, coach, family, etc., thus broadening its scope [7][24][25], including its association with achievement motivation and motivational climate [21][26]. Moreover, in veteran athletes, sports commitment has been related to aspects such as healthy lifestyles, enjoyment and wellness [27].

2. Self-Determined Regulation, Achievement Goals and Sport Commitment in Masters Swimmers 

Concerning personal well-being, linked to the more self-determined types of regulation [28][29], various authors [30] find that Masters who begin or resume an activity primarily do so motivated by aspects related to well-being, more than simple sport performance. Additionally, Masters who rekindle their previous swimming careers recognize a change in their initial mentality based on sport performance, due to their interactions with other Masters who have been involved in the activity for longer [30][31][32]. In this sense, the fact that Masters show lower external regulation compared to the other types does not mean they do not value sport performance. Indeed, studies suggest they use competition as the reference for their training, while sports events themselves may contain important psychosocial elements [33].
As regards achievement goals, participants valued the intention to improve in their sport (mastery goals) over the intention to be better than others or to avoid being worse (performance–approach and performance–avoidance goals). It also found significant differences, although in this case moderate and with a low effect size, between approach and avoidance goals. These results suggest that the Masters participating present positive adaptive processes related to their sport. Mastery goals have been negatively related to burnout and positively related to enjoyment, personal well-being, and relationship building [34][35]. Mastery goals were moderately related to intrinsic motivation, but highly related to identified regulation. In other words, self-improvement-oriented goals are positively related to the benefit-oriented regulation generated by the activity.
Performance–approach and performance–avoidance goals are perceived as less important. Both goal orientations showed lower relationships with introjected regulation and medium-sized relationships with external regulation. These types of relationships have been reported in previous studies with veteran athletes, and have also been shown to be highly unstable goals at temporal level [31].
In previous studies, enjoyment of the activity, besides being the main source of intrinsic motivation, has been identified as the strongest determinant of sport commitment in veteran or Masters athletes [25][36]. In this sense, many authors refer to the commitment of these athletes as “lifelong engagement in sport” [32][33], and this commitment should thus manifest itself equally in the present and in the future. However, this future commitment may be mediated by aspects that are, to a certain extent, beyond the control of the Masters, such as circumstances of family, work, health, etc. Several authors point to these psychosocial aspects as key motivators in how Masters athletes engage in their sport [37][38]. In any event, the sport commitment of the participants is considerably robust. Moreover, scholars found a strong relationship between current commitment, mastery goals and identified motivation. It seems logical that the Masters are committed to their sport activity, because they seek their personal improvement through mastery goals and value the benefit the activity produces in this sense (identified regulation).
In short, results show the Masters present a motivational profile predominated by the most self-determined types of motivation (intrinsic, integrated and identified), mastery goals (personal improvement) and a strong current commitment to the sport. This motivational profile of self-determined motivation, mastery goals and high present commitment may be related to that reported in previous studies with veteran and Masters athletes [31]. However, some of the findings of the present study differ from those of other works, especially when Masters from other sports are analysed. In contrast to these previous studies, it found no age- or gender-related differences [31][32]. In other studies, men have presented higher achievement goals than women, while the latter showed higher intrinsic motivation scores. Age was a key factor related to personal well-being more than to sport outcomes.

References

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  2. Aquatics, W. Water Meets the Future. World Aquatics Masters Championships—Kyushu 2023. Available online: https://www.fina-fukuoka2022.org/en/masters/outline.html (accessed on 8 August 2023).
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  13. Domínguez Borreguero, R.; Ries, F.; Carrasco Páez, L. Propiedades psicométricas de la versión en castellano de la Escala de Concepción de Habilidad Percibida en el ámbito deportivo (Psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Conceptions of Perceived Ability Scale in a sport context). Retos 2023, 48, 835–843.
  14. Ito, E.; Hikoji, K.; Chogahara, M. Baseball Heritage in Japan: A Case of the Masters Koshien. In Baseball and Cultural Heritage; Ramshaw, G., Gammon, S., Eds.; Florida Scholarship Online: Gainesville, FL, USA, 2022.
  15. Elliot, A.J.; Gable, S.L.; Mapes, R.R. Approach and avoidance motivation in the social domain. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 2006, 32, 378–391.
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Subjects: Psychology
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Juan Ángel Simón-Piqueras
,
Pedro Gil-Madrona
,
David Zamorano-García
,
Miriam De La Torre-Maroto
,
Juan Gregorio Fernández-Bustos
View Times: 283
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 24 Oct 2023
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