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Methods of Increasing the Bioavailability of Polyphenols
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/biomedicines11072078

Polyphenols, a class of bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, and lignans, are commonly found in plant-based diets with a variety of biological actions, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. Unfortunately, polyphenols are not widely used in nutraceuticals since many of the chemicals in polyphenols possess poor oral bioavailability. Thankfully, polyphenols can be encapsulated and transported using bio-based nanocarriers, thereby increasing their bioavailability. Polyphenols’ limited water solubility and low bioavailability are limiting factors for their practical usage, but this issue can be resolved if suitable delivery vehicles are developed for encapsulating and delivering polyphenolic compounds.

polyphenols bioavailability nanocarriers

1. Introduction

The health benefits of plant-based functional foods have attracted a growing amount of scientific interest, and plant polyphenols, one of the most common chemical components of plants, have particular attention. A diet full of vegetables, fruits, grains, tea, and coffee contains polyphenols in their natural forms. Polyphenolic compounds have a wide range of varied structures based on phenolic rings [1][2] and can be broken down into phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and tannins. Several foods consist of bioactive chemicals or molecules that have a biological effect on the body. Polyphenols are one type of bioactive compound found in plant diets [2][3]. Some polyphenols can be obtained through reprocessing natural substances, while others can be separated and extracted straight from natural foods. The chemical composition of polyphenols determines their rate of absorption and the extent of their action in the digestive tract [4]. Because of their unique chemical composition, polyphenols can serve as effective preventative agents against chronic and degenerative diseases [3][4][5]. The protective effects of polyphenols against cardiovascular disease, neurological disease, liver disease, diabetes, and cancer have been demonstrated by a number of researchers [6][7][8][9][10][11][12].
Natural bio-based nanocarriers are the ideal choice for enclosing, preserving, and transporting polyphenols, which increases their bioavailability (Figure 1) [2][13]. To overcome the problems associated with the poor oral absorption of polyphenols, bio-based polymers (such as those containing proteins and polysaccharides) are appropriate delivery systems when employed as nutritional treatments since they are biocompatible, biodegradable, resource-sustainable, and nutritionally valuable [2][13]. Protein bio-based polymers possess a wide range of useful features, such as those of emulsification, amphiphilicity, gelation, and foaming, in addition to their high nutritional value [13]. Because of their typical or distinctive molecular structure and functional properties, they may be fabricated into a wide variety of nanoscale delivery vehicles, including nanoparticles, nanogels, nano-emulsions, nanofilms, and nanofibers, that can transport both hydrophilic and hydrophobic polyphenolic chemicals [13][14]. Bio-based polymeric polysaccharides can be used as building blocks in the production of various nanocarriers and in the transport of polyphenolic compounds [1][2]. As they are both biocompatible and biodegradable, lipid-based nanocarriers have emerged as a key technology for delivering polyphenols in the food and nutrition industry [2]. To further investigate and create innovative polyphenol health nutrition products [2][14], some polyphenol products have been put into an effort to further develop novel polyphenol-based health nutrition products [2][14]. Lipid-based delivery vectors, such as liposomes, nano-emulsions, and solid lipid nanoparticles, protect fat-soluble polyphenols from degradation in the digestive tract and increase their bioavailability [1][2][4][12][14].
Figure 1. Beneficial health effects of polyphenols on human health.

2. Polyphenol Bioavailability

There is no correlation between the quantity of polyphenols in food and their bioavailability. When taken orally, polyphenols gain access to the bloodstream via the intestinal mucosa and then travel to the intended tissues. A number of studies confirm the rising interest in nutraceuticals [15]. The regulation of several metabolic functions is profoundly influenced by one’s dietary habits. Foods are more than just fuel for the body’s metabolic processes; they also contain “active substances” that have positive impacts on health, such as antioxidants, vitamins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and fiber. Hence, a healthy diet and all of its constituents can help people feel better, lower their chances of developing certain diseases, and generally increase their quality of life [16][17][18].
The most studied classes of physiologically active molecules include fatty acids and lipids, amino-acid-based substances, carbohydrates, fiber, isoprenoid derivatives, and phenolic compounds (Figure 1). The intestinal absorption and bio-accessibility of these nutritious substances [19][20][21] are crucial factors to think about when assessing their bioavailability. For instance, polyphenols have a modulating influence on the gut microbiota by blocking pathogenic bacteria and increasing good bacteria, both of which have positive effects on host health. The mucus layer, made up of epithelial cells, can act as a barrier for some nutraceutical chemicals, limiting their absorption after ingestion [22]. Nevertheless, bioactive chemicals exert favorable impacts on human health when they are taken up from food and become soluble in gastrointestinal fluids.
Microencapsulated bioactive molecules, like flavonoids, phenolic compounds, antioxidant molecules, carotenoids, and general plant metabolites, are examples of bioavailable nutraceutical chemicals. In reality, active substances, including pigments, antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, peptides, and proteins, are protected, stabilized, and their bioavailability is increased and controlled through the use of micro/nano-encapsulation procedures. By encapsulating them, nutraceuticals are better able to withstand the rigors of the digestive system, interact with it, and remain soluble and bioavailable [23][24][25].
Certain fruits, such as apples and berries, contain more than 200 mg of polyphenols per 100 g of fresh fruit [26]. The amount and bioavailability of these phenolic chemicals, however, are affected by the method(s) of food processing used. For instance, since many food-processing techniques require heat treatment, it is commonly seen that exposure to higher temperatures might negatively affect the nutritional profile of fruits and vegetables; nevertheless, some research has found the opposite to be true [27]. Domestic cooking was found to cause significant losses in polyphenols, with wide variation among meals, according to a comprehensive investigation of ~161 polyphenols and their food-processing alterations. Furthermore, it was found that the food under study was frequently more influential than the procedure used, demonstrating the significance of the food matrix [28]. The fate of polyphenolic compounds during food processing depends on a wide variety of parameters, including the type of food-processing technique employed in both commercial and home kitchens, and these correlations are briefly discussed here.
Both at home and in large-scale food-processing facilities, heat treatments are in practice. Cooking methods, such as the stovetop, the microwave, and the steam oven, can be used for these preparations. Toasting, coffee roasting, drying, canning, pasteurizing, and sterilizing are all examples of additional common transformation methods that rely on heat. What happens to polyphenols upon heating depends on the processing technique used. By destroying cell walls, heat increases the availability of phenolic compounds that are bound elsewhere in the plant [29]. They are more susceptible to oxidation, though, and only a few of them are truly thermostable. It is observed that the polyphenol profiles of foods vary depending on how long they are boiled. For instance, kale leaves lost 51% of their polyphenol content after being blanched (short-interval boiled), with the loss of caffeic acid being the lowest (28%), and the loss of ferulic acid being the greatest (55%). However, the total polyphenol content decreased by 73% because of the more severe damage caused by extended cooking times [30].
Canning is a method for economically producing microbiologically safe and sterile products through the use of heat treatment. Retorts, pasteurizers, and heat exchangers are all suitable for processing food into the canned form. The primary goal of heat treatment is to kill off any potentially harmful bacteria, and metal cans, glass jars, and retort pouches are employed to keep out any potential spoilers. Both the food and the jar can be kept in good condition if they are cooled to room temperature after being heated [31]. When phenolic components leach (draining process) into the surrounding medium (brine or syrup), total phenolic and flavonoid concentrations are said to decrease during canning [32]. The applied heat treatment disintegrates the cells and tissues, allowing the polyphenols to migrate into the media and cause this widespread leaching.
The development of water crystals and ice at temperatures below freezing is a strategy used for preservation because it slows down biological and physicochemical events. Hence, it inhibits the growth of pathogenic microbes and extends the storage life of food [33]. To a lesser extent (in a temperature range of 1 to 8 °C), chilling or cooling meals decreases microbiological and metabolic changes to maintain stability. Foods that have been cooled from their original cooking temperature keep their quality for longer [33]. According to a study, blanching or cooking kale leaves prior to freezing did not have a significant effect on their bioavailability [30].

3. Nanoformulations Made from Dietary Macromolecules to Encapsulate and Transport Polyphenols

Dietary proteins have the unique property of having an exceptional binding ability with various pharmaceuticals or nutraceuticals, making them an ideal renewable raw material for constructing nanocarriers for medication or nutraceutical delivery (Figure 2). Proteins found in food have many health benefits and advantages, such as being antigenic and biodegradable. Protein nanoparticles have a low barrier to entry in terms of synthesis and production scale [34][35].
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Figure 2. Advantages of using polyphenol-based nanoformulations.

3.1. Nanoformulations of Casein

Proline-rich, open-structured rheomorphic caseins exhibit separate hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains. Caseins (95%) are spontaneously self-assembled into casein micelles, which are spherical colloidal particles with sizes of 50–500 nm (average 150 nm). Hydrophobic interactions improved curcumin’s solubility at least 2500-fold in camel β-casein micelles. Curcumin in a β-casein micelle has more antioxidant activity than free β-casein and curcumin. The human leukemia cell line K-562 was more sensitive to encapsulated curcumin than free curcumin [36]. A group studied the spray-dried curcumin-loaded casein nanoparticles from a warm aqueous ethanol solution with dissolved sodium caseinate and curcumin [37]. Curcumin with casein nanoparticles was a more potent antioxidant and cytotoxic than virgin curcumin. The researchers have proposed a low-cost, low-energy, organic solvent-free encapsulation method based on curcumin’s pH-dependent solubility and sodium caseinate’s self-assembly [37]. Curcumin was encapsulated in self-assembled casein nanoparticles after neutralization at pH 12 and 21 °C. Casein nanoparticle-encapsulated curcumin boosted human colorectal and pancreatic cancer cell growth [37].

3.2. Nanoformulations of Gelatin

Gelatin is a collagen that is denatured via acid and alkaline hydrolysis. It has been used safely in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and food goods for years by the Food and Drug Administration. It is observed that EGCG encapsulated in gelatin-based nanoparticles blocked hepatocyte growth factor-induced intracellular signaling in MBA-MD-231 breast cancer cells as well as free EGCG [38]. It was also observed that coculture of high-loading resveratrol-loaded gelatin nanoparticles caused cell death by altering p53, p21, caspase-3, Bax, Bcl-2, and NF-κB expression [39]. Based on the observations, it is indeed possible to use polyphenols in combination with gelatin for treating deadly diseases such as cancer.

3.3. Nanoformulations of Polysaccharides in Food

Polysaccharides contribute to food texture, flavor, and caloric value. Glycosidic linkages link monosaccharides to polysaccharides. Polysaccharides’ bio adhesion, especially for mucosal surfaces, has been employed to target organs or cells and lengthen polyphenol residency time in the colon. Chitosan is the widely used polysaccharide in oral administration nanoparticle systems [40]. The most extensively disseminated biopolymer is a cationic, nontoxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible polyelectrolyte with an oral LD50 in mice of over 16 g/kg [40].

3.4. Nanoformulations with a Protein–Polysaccharide Conjugate

The Maillard process produces polysaccharide glycosylated proteins that limit protein precipitation induced by the high concentration or contact with polyphenols, which are polyphenol encapsulation materials [41]. The protein core of Maillard-synthesized gelatin–dextran conjugate nanoparticles included tea polyphenols. EGCG-loaded conjugate nanoparticles had an average diameter of 86 nm and limited distribution under optimum circumstances. EGCG has a 360 wt.% loading capacity and pH-independent encapsulation efficiency. Encapsulated EGCG had equivalent or higher cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cells than free EGCG in 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay [42].

3.5. Nanoformulations Derived from Dietary Lipids

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) improve lipid-soluble polyphenol solubility and bioavailability. In a coculture system of absorptive Caco-2 and mucus-secreting HT29-MTX cells, SLN’s curcumin delivery was tested, and it was found that curcumin encapsulated in SLN delivered better than unencapsulated curcumin without affecting cellular junction integrity [43]. Another study [44] found that curcumin-loaded SLNs could prolong in vitro anticancer efficacy, cellular absorption, and in vivo bioavailability. Resveratrol was loaded and encapsulated in two forms of SLN [45]. The nanoparticle crystal structure was changed by resveratrol, suggesting its entrapment. During incubation in digestive fluids, resveratrol mainly stayed with lipid nanoparticles [45]. A study [46] created glyceryl behenate-based solid SLNs to encapsulate and distribute resveratrol. Resveratrol-loaded SLNs were as effective as free resveratrol as an anticancer drug in a cytotoxicity experiment. In a Wistar rat bio-distribution investigation, SLNs increased brain resveratrol content by p < 0.001 [46]. Resveratrol-loaded stearic-acid-based SLNs coated with poloxamer 188 were successfully synthesized utilizing solvent diffusion–solvent evaporation and showed extended drug release in vitro up to 120 h. Compared to the solution, the lipid formulation improved the oral bioavailability of resveratrol by eight-fold [47]. After loading into SLNs, resveratrol solubility, stability, and intracellular delivery increased. With or without resveratrol, SLNs below 180 nm loading went quickly across the cell membrane, diffused throughout the cytoplasm, migrated sequentially among cellular levels, and localized in the perinuclear region without cytotoxicity. Resveratrol in solution was less cytostatic than SLN–resveratrol. Resveratrol’s cell-proliferation-reducing effects may be enhanced by SLN delivery [48]. Therefore, it can be concluded that nanoformulations based on dietary lipids can be treated as a reliable vehicle delivery for polyphenols.

4. Nanoformulations of Polyphenols and Therapeutic Properties

4.1. Cardioprotective Effects

Oxidative stress is thought to be a major factor in the development of cardiovascular disease. Increased oxidative stress and a diminished antioxidant reserve are associated with both acute and chronic heart failure [49]. Cardiovascular disease, especially ischemic heart disease, and stroke due to atherosclerosis are among the oxidative-related disorders that polyphenols can protect. Polyphenols have been shown to protect the heart against oxidative stress-related diseases in a number of studies [50][51]. A bioactive polymer (PLGA layer) was deposited on top of a superparamagnetic SiN.SiN@QC-PLGA nano-bio-composite [52] to modify the drug discharge profile and increase the functional resemblance to the local myocardial by facilitating the cell recruitment, expansion, attachment, and articulation of cardiac proteins. The effectiveness of recently produced nano-formulated natural therapies against hypertension, atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and myocardial infarction has been studied [53].

4.2. Neuroprotective Effects

Researchers are studying cerium oxide nanoparticles because they show promising molecules as a treatment for several neurological illnesses [54]. The neuroprotective effects of CeO2@SiO2-PEG nanoparticles (CSP-NPs) for proanthocyanidin and curcumin delivery have been studied [55]. Hydrophilic curcumin (Cur) and hydrophobic proanthocyanidin (PAC) were, respectively, loaded onto CeO2@SiO2-PEG nanoparticles to produce Cur-NPs and PAC-NPs. Cur-NPs and PAC-NPs inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AchE) activity and protected neurons against A1-42-mediated toxicity in PC-12 cells. Several studies have reported different nanoparticle systems loaded with curcumin. These systems include poly (-caprolactone) (PCL), poly (lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), and methoxy poly (ethylene glycol) poly (-caprolactone) (MPEG-PCL). Inhibiting enzymatic and pH degradation of curcumin and showcasing its neuroprotective capabilities [56] are both made possible through the incorporation of curcumin into nanoparticle systems. A safe and efficient therapeutic approach for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease may be the development of PEGylated PLGA nanoparticles loaded with two medicines (EGCG and acetyl acid). When mice were orally administered EGCG/ascorbic acid NPs, the compound accumulated throughout the brain and other important organs. This formulation has been shown to have the potential to increase the drug’s persistence in both the blood and the brain [57]. Research has found that 4-hydroxyisophthalic acid (4-HIA)-encapsulated PLGA-NPs significantly reduced the cytotoxicity of H2O2 in PC12 cells [58]. Thus, the neuroprotective effects are well established using nanoformulations and polyphenols.

4.3. Cancer Treatment

Cancer is defined as an uncontrolled growth of cells, which can lead to malignancies that are both potentially fatal and extremely costly for patients and the healthcare system. Many different diseases have traditionally been treated and prevented with natural polyphenols. Hence, due to their anticancer effects, these phytochemicals may be used as chemotherapeutic and chemopreventive drugs in a variety of malignancies [59]. The cytotoxic effects of curcumin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles coupled with anti-P-glycoprotein were studied in human cervical cancer KB-3-1 and KB-V1 cells, and the results showed increased curcumin solubility and cellular absorption, as well as decreased cell survival [60]. To activate PTT-assisted ferrous therapy in the treatment of cancer, the authors of [61] designed ferric-coordinated polyphenol nanoparticles. Ellagic acid loaded with schizophyllan and chitin nanoparticles exhibits anticancer effects [62] in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Viability assays showed that MCF-7 cells were significantly inhibited in their ability to proliferate, with the impact being amplified at higher concentrations. The nanoencapsulation of quercetin and curcumin in a casein-based model was recently described [63], and these compounds were evaluated against MCF-7 cell lines.

5. Polyphenol-Based Nanoformulations: Takeaway Message

Several important concerns need to be addressed in the future to speed up the development and clinical translation of polyphenol-containing nanoformulations: (a) The manufacture of polyphenol-containing nanoformulations requires the development of simple and generic methodologies, as well as the actualization of rational design and on-demand synthesis. It is important to learn more about the use of the materials’ qualities and functionalities. In their current form, nanoformulations containing polyphenols have a number of drawbacks, including a lack of physiological stability/biodegradability, drug encapsulation/loading efficiency, stimulus responsiveness, traceability, and active targeting ability. Some fresh perspectives could emerge from combining chemical grafting with supramolecular self-assembly. (b) Cancer combination therapy has found an excellent new platform in polyphenol-containing nanoformulations. Better anticancer tactics may be attainable through the development of multifunctional polyphenol-based nanoplatforms that integrate various cancer therapeutic modalities (such as chemotherapy, radiation, and immunotherapy). Nanoformulations containing polyphenols have many potential medical uses, but further research is needed. While most research so far has been on cancer treatment, polyphenols’ many health benefits also make them useful in preventing and managing bacterial infection, neurological diseases, cardiovascular conditions, diabetes, and others. Furthermore, it is anticipated that the polyphenol-containing nanoformulations will be able to include different enzymes for biocatalysis purposes. Imaging agents (fluorescent probes, MRI agents, radioactive agents) should be incorporated into various illness therapies with increased focus. (c) Systematic assessments of the biosafety and in vivo destiny of polyphenol-containing nanoformulations are also crucial. Research into polyphenol-containing nanoformulations should focus on their targeting abilities to tumor or inflamed tissues, long-term toxicity, in vivo biodegradability, renal clearance, and interaction processes with biological systems.

6. Conclusions

The phenolic compounds (EGCG, resveratrol, curcumin, quercetin) found in plants in high concentrations perform a wide range of beneficial biological functions. Furthermore, poor stability, poor solubility, and limited bioavailability significantly limit the utilization of these compounds in food and medicine. Nanoparticle encapsulation not only allows for more precise targeting and controllable release but also allows for the circumvention of these limits. Nanotechnology provides an ideal carrier system for increasing the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of polyphenols. Nanoparticles are nearly ideal as carriers; however, their side effects and toxicity must be considered and mitigated before they may be used in a therapeutic setting. As polyphenols are natural compounds that must be taken for an extended period of time in the treatment and prevention of diseases, it is vital to understand the dangerous side effects linked to the buildup of nanoparticles in the physiological system. Specifically, if the nanoparticles have a poor encapsulation rate, this will be the case. Thus, standardized in vitro and in vivo models must be constructed, and in vivo safety testing procedures must be verified to support the development and implementation of innovative, effective nanoparticles beneficial to human health.

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Subjects: Biochemistry & Molecular Biology
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Mohammad Aatif
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