Mycotoxins in Food Commodities in Cameroon

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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods12081713

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins that contaminate different crops and foodstuffs under certain circumstances during harvesting, handling, storage, and processing. It is noteworthy that mycotoxins contaminate the main staple foods of Cameroonian communities, which are also often used as complementary foods for infants, young children, and people with compromised immune systems (e.g., HIV/AIDS), thus calling for urgent intervention in primary and secondary prevention.

mycotoxins exposure total diet studies primary prevention foods

1. Cereals and Derived Products

Cereals are plants used extensively in food and feed manufacturing as a source of proteins, carbohydrates, and oils. Cereals and derived products are frequently contaminated by mycotoxins. The occurrence of mycotoxins in Cameroonian cereals, such as maize, sorghum, and rice, has been reported by many authors (Table 1). Among the most cultivated food crops, maize ranks third in terms of volume of production after cassava and banana. Maize is the staple food in the western highlands of Cameroon. Inappropriate postharvest practices increase the chances of harvested grains becoming infected with Aspergillus and Fusarium sp. ^[1], especially because most grains are harvested during the rainy season, which creates favorable conditions for infections.

All the studies ^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] included in this research reported the presence of AFs (AFB1), FBs (FB1), Deoxynivalenol (DON), Zearalenone (ZEN), Patulin, and Total citrinin in maize and maize-derived products directly consumed by people (beer, porridge, and fufu). AF and FB contents in maize-based dishes (beer, porridge, and fufu) were dependent on the production process: processes including a sieving step led to lower mycotoxin concentrations ^[7], which in some cases exceeded the standard limit fixed by the European Commission for such products ^[8]. FB1, DON, and ZEN at levels up to 26.0, 1300, and 1100 µg/kg, respectively, were reported ^[9]^[10]. FB1 was showing the highest prevalence with a concentration increasing with storage time. AFs were observed with a high percentage of positive samples, with the level depending on the agroecological zone (AEZ).

The occurrence of mycotoxins in sorghum, a crop mainly produced and consumed in North Cameroon, and its derived products has been studied during the last decade ^[11]. OTA, DON, and FB1 were not found in the grains collected in North Cameroon by Djoulde ^[9], while AFB1 was detected in sorghum cultivated in the rainy season (0–230 µg/kg). In some locally produced artisanal sorghum by-products (beer, flour, baby’s beverage, and cake), mycotoxins were detected at levels ranging 0–250 µg/kg for AFB1, 0–45 µg/kg for OTA, and 0–538 µg/kg for DON, while, in a previous work, local sorghum beers were contaminated by both DON (0–730 µg/L) and FB1 (0–340 µg/L).

Table 1. Mycotoxins in Cameroonian food and their derivatives.

Region (AEZ)	Mycotoxin	Mycotoxin (μg/kg) Mean (min–max)	No. Positive Samples	References	Maximum Level in Food	Hazard Index (QLmax/ML)
Maize grains	West (AEZ 3) North West (AEZ 3) Center (AEZ 5)	FB1 DON ZEN	(300−26000) (<100−1300) (<50−110)	18	^[10]	ZEN: 60 µg/kg to 75 µg/kg ZEN: 100 µg/kg EU ZEN: no Codex standard FB1: 4000 µg/kg ≠ FB1: 1000 µg/kg (Krska et al., 2019) AFB1: 2000 µg/kg (Codex) AFB1: 10 µg/kg (CX/CF 19/13/15 March 2019) AFB1: 5 µg/kg EU AFs: 20 µg/kg US FDA AFs: 4 µg/kg EU DON: 2000 µg/kg≠ DON: 750 µg/kg DON (cereals-based foods for children): 200 µg/kg DON (wheat, maize): 1000 µg/kg CIT: 2000 µg/kg EU	FB1: 7 to 26 (ML) DON 1 to 6 (children) ZEN: 2
	West (AEZ 3) North West (AEZ 3) Center (AEZ 5)	FBs DON ZEN	(50–26.000) (100–1300) (50–180)	18	^[12]		DON 1 to 6 (children) ZEN: 3
	North West (AEZ 3) Center (AEZ 5) Littoral (AEZ 4)	FB1 ZEN DON AFs	3684 (37–24225) 69 (28–273) 59 (18–273)	26 31 29 22	^[2]		FB1: 6 to 24 (ML) ZEN: 4 DON (children): 1
	North West (AEZ 3)	FB1	508 (2–2313)	37	^[4]		FB1(ML): 0.5 to 2
	West (AEZ 3) North West (AEZ 3) Center (AEZ 5) North (AEZ 1)	AFs	1 (≤2–42)	6	^[5]		AFs: 4.2
	Littoral (AEZ 4) North (AEZ 1)	Total Citrinin	(5.7–6.5) (2.2–3.0)	NI	^[6]		CIT: 0.0032 ZEN: 0.97 to 1.61
	Littoral (AEZ 4) North (AEZ 1)	ZEN	(7.6–97.0)	NI	^[6]
	Littoral (AEZ 4) North (AEZ 1)	FBs	(64.4–71.6) (19.0–27.1)	NI	^[6]
Maize kernels	North (AEZ 1) West (AEZ 3)	FBs AFB1 ZEN DON	(10–5412) (6–645) (27–334) (27–3842)	66 36 23 19	^[3]	-	FBs: 2.7 to 5.4 AFB1:0.32 to 129 ZEN: 3.34 to 5.56 DON: 1.9 to 3.8
Maize-based dishes	Center (AEZ 5)	AFs FBs	(0.8–20) (10–5990)	22 22	^[13]	AFB1 (infants and young children): 0.10 µg/kg DON: 750 µg/kg	AFB1: 200 FBs: 1.49 to 5.99
Maize-fufu	West (AEZ 3)	AFB1 DON FB1 NIV PAT ZEN	0.9 (n.d.–1.8) 23 (14–55) 151 (48–709) 268 (116–372) 105 (12–890) 49 (5–150)	12 50 50 50 15 50	^[8]		AFB1: 0.36 DON: 0.055 FB1:0.709 ZEN: 1.5 to 2
Kutukutu (fermented maize-based dough)	North (AEZ 1) West (AEZ 3)	AFB1	(≤2.8)	29	^[8]	NA	-
Sorghum (Variety Damugari)	North (AEZ 1)	AFB1	75 (0–230)	NI	^[9]	AFB1: 20 µg/kg EU	AFB1: 11.5
Sorghum (Variety Djigari)	North (AEZ 1)	AFB1	45 (0–145)	NI	^[9]	AFB1: 20 µg/kg EU	AFB1: 7.25
Sorghum beer (Bil-bil)	North (AEZ 1)	DON FB1	450 (140–730) 150 (0–230)	70 55	^[9]	DON: 750 µg/kg **	DON: 0.73 to 0.97 FB1: 0.23
Sorghum beer (Kpata)	North (AEZ 1)	DON FB1	520 (0–680) 210 (0.5–340)	37 50	^[9]	DON: 750 µg/kg **	DON: 0.68 FB1: 0.34
Rice	North (AEZ 1)	OTA	(0.2–0.3)	NI	^[6]	1250 µg/kg OTA (unprocessed cereals): 5 µg/kg (Codex) **	0.06
Cassava fresh	Littoral (AEZ 4)	OTA	(0.04–0.1)	NI	^[6]	5 µg/kg (Codex) **	0.02
Cassava dry	Littoral (AEZ 4)	ZEN	7.6 (NI)	NI	^[6]	EU (100 µg/kg)	0.08
Cassava products	North (AEZ 1) West (AEZ 3)	AFB1 Penicillic acid	NI (6–194) NI (25–184)	41 10	^[3]	20	AFB1: 9.7
Stored cassava chips	South (AEZ 5)	AFs	(5.2–15)	NI	^[14]	20 -	AFs: 0.75 to 3.75
Miscellaneous: Rice Pumpkin seeds (egusi) Fermented cassava flakes (gari) Fermented cassava flour (nkum nkum)	North west (AEZ 3) South west (AEZ 4) Littoral (AEZ 4) Center (AEZ 5)	FB1 ZEN DON AFs	ND 67 (NI) 25 (13–35) 0.3 (NI)	0 1 3 1	^[2]	DON: 750 µg/kg **	0.05
Peanuts	Littoral (AEZ 4)	AFs	(14.3–14.6)	NI	^[6]	15 µg/kg EAC limits 4 µg/kg **	0.97 to 3.64
Peanuts meal	West (AEZ 3) North west (AEZ 3) Center (AEZ 5) Littoral (AEZ 4)	AFs	161 (39–950)	41	^[5]	AFB1: 5 µg/kg AFs: 10 µg/kg **	95 to 190
Groundnuts	West (AEZ 3) Center (AEZ 5)	AFB1	47 (210)	34	^[8]	AFs: 10 µg/kg **	NA
Beans	North (AEZ 1)	AFs	(0.2–0.6)	NI	^[6]	20 µg/kg US FDA	0.03
Beans	Center (AEZ 5)	FB1 ZEN DON AFs	727 (28–1351) 48 (27–157) 25 (13–35) 2.4 (0.2–6.2)	3 5 7 5	^[2]	1000 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 20 µg/kg	FB1:1.35 ZEN: 1.57 DON: 0.35 AFs: 0.31
Soybeans	Center (AEZ 5)	FB1 ZEN DON AFs	195 (25–365) 0 110 (13–207) 2.1 (0.2–3.9)	2 0 2 2	^[2]	1000 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 20 µg/kg	FB1: 0.365 DON: 2.07 AFs: 0.19
Cocoa beans and derived products (roasted cocoa, nibs, butter, cocoa powder, chocolate spread)	South west (AEZ 4)	OTA	11.52 (5.3–21)	NI	^[15]	0.5–15 µg/kg EU	1.4 to 42
Green coffee beans	Center (AEZ 5)	OTA	1.7 (1–2.5)	4	^[16]	0.5–15 µg/kg EU	0.16 to 5
Arabica coffee	Center (AEZ 5)	OTA	(0.12–124)	NI	^[17]	0.5–15 µg/kg EU	8.26 to 248
	West (AEZ 3)	OTA	(0.3–4.9)	33	^[17]		0.32 to 9.8
	South west (AEZ 4)	OTA	(0.12–124)	NI	^[18]
Robusta coffee	South west (AEZ 4)	OTA	(0.6–18)	36	^[18]	0.5–15 µg/kg EU	1.2 to 36
Black pepper	Center (AEZ 5)	OTA	1.5 (1.2–1.9)	2	^[7]	OT: 15 µg/kg	0.12
White pepper	Center (AEZ 5)	OTA	3.3 (1.8–4.9)	8	^[7]	OT: 15 µg/kg	0.32
Eggs	Center (AEZ 5)	AFs	0.82 (NI)	28	^[19]	NA	NA
Cow milk	Center (AEZ 5)	AFM1	NI (0.006–0.53)	10	^[19]	0.5 µg/kg **	1.06
Irvingia gabonensis (African mango)	Center (AEZ 5) Littoral (AEZ 4) West (AEZ 3)	AFs Fs ZEN	3.54 (NI) 0.00 (NI) 4.61 (NI)	3 0 0	^[20]	AFB1 (spices): 5 µg/kg AFs (spices): 10 µg/kg **	NA
Aframomum melegueta (graines du paradis)	Center (AEZ 5) Littoral (AEZ 4) West (AEZ 3)	AFs Fs ZEN	0.32 (NI) 9.30 (NI) 20.24 (NI)	0 0 0	^[20]		NA
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (bush onion)	Center (AEZ 5) Littoral (AEZ 4) West (AEZ 3)	AFs Fs ZEN	2.5 (NI) 28.23 (NI) 110.89 (NI)	2 0 2	^[20]		NA
Ricinodendron heudelotii (Njansang)	Center (AEZ 5) Littoral (AEZ 4) West (AEZ 3)	AFs Fs ZEN	0.63 (NI) 78.62 (NI) 7.84 (NI)	0 0 0	^[20]		NA
Xylopia aethiopica (guinea pepper)	Center (AEZ 5) Littoral (AEZ 4) West (AEZ 3)	AFs Fs ZEN	1.2 (NI) 891.97 (NI) 219.47 (NI)	2 15 30	^[20]	AFB1 (spices): 5 µg/kg AFs (spices): 10 µg/kg **	NA
Monodora myristica (African nutmeg)	Center (AEZ 5) Littoral (AEZ 4) West (AEZ 3)	AFs Fs ZEN	0.7 (NI) 6.52 (NI) 110.89 (NI)	0 0 20	^[20]		NA
Tetrapleura tetraptera (Gum tree)	Center (AEZ 5) Littoral (AEZ 4) West (AEZ 3)	AFs Fs ZEN	0.9 (NI) 437.08 (NI) 52.56 (NI)	0 2 0	^[20]		NA
Vegetable oil (cottonseed oil)	Littoral (AEZ 4) North (AEZ 1)	Sterigmatocystin	0.2 0.7	NI	^[6]		NA
Tilapia	Center (AEZ 5) West (AEZ 3)	AFs AFB1	4.48 (0.26–8.64) 2.23 (0.13–4.32)	34	^[21]	20	AFs: 0.43
Kanga	Center (AEZ 5) West (AEZ 3)	AFs AFB1	5.84 (0.21–11.46) 2.82 (0.10–5.59)	34	^[21]	20	AFs: 0.57
Carp	Center (AEZ 5) West (AEZ 3)	AFs AFB1	11.93 (6.56–17.35) 5.87 (3.17–8.67)	34	^[21]	20	AFs: 0.86
Catfish	Center (AEZ 5) West (AEZ 3)	AFs AFB1	17.72 (3.62–31.38) 8.81 (1.81–15.69)	34	^[21]	20	AFs: 1.56
Poultry feeds		FB1 DON ZEN AFB1	468 (16–1930) 164 (19–495) 4.7 (0.3–28) 40		^[4]	1000 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 20 µg/kg	FB1: 1.93 DON: 4.95 ZEN: 0.28

QL, quantifiable level; NI, not indicated; NA, not available; ND, not detected. ** Commission Regulation (EC) no 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. EAC, East African Community limits; US FDA, US Food and Drug Administration.

When considering AEZ, all the samples were mostly positive with aflatoxins (AFs) and Fumonisins in the western highlands (AEZ 3) than other AEZs, these are characterized by hot climate and high relative humidity. The composite samples with highest ZEA concentrations were collected in Douala: maize (wet season: 7.6 µg/kg; dry season: 97.0 µg/kg) and cassava having undergone a drying process prior to being prepared for consumption (dry season: 7.6 µg/kg).

2. Spices

Spices are nonleafy parts of the plant that are used in small amounts for food flavoring; they are considered as an essential part of the human diet. Spices are produced mainly in developing countries with tropical climate, where high temperature and humidity facilitate fungal growth and the occurrence of mycotoxins. Few authors reported the contamination of spices in Cameroon. The presence of OTA was detected in 10% of black pepper samples (1.2–1.9 µg/kg) and 40% of white pepper samples (1.8–4.9 µg/kg) collected from Yaoundé markets ^[13]. Some authors worked on the prevalence and concentrations of AFs, FBs, and ZEN on seven edible nontimber forest products used as spices (Irvingia gabonensis, Aframomum melegueta, Afrostyrax lepidophyllus, Ricinodendron heudelotii, Xylopia aethiopica, Monodora myristica, and Tetrapleura tetraptera) ^[20]. Contamination of 5.56% of samples of A. lepidophyllus, 8.33% of samples of X. aethiopica, and 11.11% of samples of I. gabonensis was above the regulatory limit (10 pbb). Ricinodendron heudelotii, M. myristica, and T. tetraptera had AF levels below the regulatory limit. When considering AEZs, all the commodities and AEZs were positive for AF. Occurrence of AFs in A. melegueta and M. myristica was lower in the three AEZs. Over 84% of the samples had detectable levels of AFs, among which only 5.71% were above the regulatory limit. The majority of commodity samples (94.28%) were safe for human consumption. Fumonisin was not detected in I. gabonensis and M. myristica samples. The level of FBs was significantly higher in samples of X. aethiopica (891.97 µg/kg) followed by T. tetraptera (437.08 µg/kg). All samples of X. aethiopica had FB content above 100 µg/kg. Fumonisin content was higher in X. aethiopica and T. tetraptera samples irrespective of AEZs. Among 210 samples collected from the three AEZs, 53% had detectable levels of FBs and only 5% were above the regulatory limit (1000 µg/kg) while 47% were below the limit of detection. The level of ZEN in some commodities was above it. This was the case for A. lepidophyllus (5.55%), M. myristica (66.67%), and X. aethiopica (100%). Zearalenone content was higher in X. aethiopica and M. myristica samples irrespective of AEZs; however, the level of ZEN in each commodity did not vary significantly between AEZs. Overall, 92% of samples was positive for ZEN among which 21% was above the legal limit (100 µg/kg), despite the regulatory limit (100 µg/kg) being high compared to some other mycotoxins.

3. Cassava and Derived Products

The Cassava root contributes to food security, income, and employment opportunities in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa. In Cameroon, cassava roots are processed into fufu, gari, tapioca, starch, and flour. Fresh cassava and cassava products are perceived as potential sources of mycotoxins. Some authors assessed the AFs content in cassava chips, a cassava-derived product (obtained after fermentation and drying) which is widely consumed locally ^[14]. Aflatoxins and penicillic acid were found at a concentration of 194 µg/kg and 184 µg/kg, respectively, in cassava products (flakes and chips) ^[3]. The presence of OTA was detected in fresh cassava and ZEN in dried cassava in the center and north of Cameroon at concentrations below the EU limits ^[6]. The Sudano Sahelian zone (AEZ 1) and the western highlands (AEZ 3) exhibit the highest concentrations for AFB1 and penicillic acid.

4. Cocoa and Coffee

Cocoa and coffee are food commodities with a high impact on the economy of many producing countries such as Cameroon. Cocoa is an important ingredient in a number of food items, such as cakes and sweets, and coffee is a primary export product in world trade. Due to their high level of consumption, stringent standards have been defined for cocoa and coffee, with strict control in the international markets. In their study on the effect of postharvest treatment on the final OTA content in cocoa beans and their derivatives (roasted cocoa, nibs, butter, cocoa powder, and chocolate spread) ^[15]^[18], authors observed that pod damage and late pod opening were aggravating factors for OTA contamination. Fermented dried cocoa from intact pods presented an OTA content below those from poor-quality pods (intentionally or naturally damaged) which showed contents up to 76 µg/kg ^[18]. Among the 104 samples that they tested, only a few presented an average OTA content above the 5 µg/kg international limit for roasted coffee. Similar observations were made by other authors ^[19]. The local Arabica coffee brand samples were all below the limit, and only a few from the Robusta coffee were above the limit. Studies conducted by Romani et al. ^[16] reported an OTA contamination of green coffee beans from Cameroon.

5. Peanuts, Beans, and Soybeans

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is the most important cultivated grain legume crop and covers an estimated 120,000 hectares annually. Soybeans are today one of the main and important sources of proteins (40–42%) and vegetable oil (18–22%) used in human food ^[3]. Soybean ranks second in legumes cultivated after peanuts; however, as with many other crops ^[3]^[4], its yield is limited in sub-Saharan Africa by several factors, including poor cultivation practices. Beans are the second most important grain crop next to maize in terms of production and consumption in Cameroon, especially in the western highlands. An evaluation of the mycotoxin content in peanuts, soybean, and beans reveals the presence of Aflatoxins (AFs), Fumonisins, ZEN, and DON ^[2]. OTA was also detected in 13 out of 90 peanut samples ^[3]. The same authors did not find ZEN in soybeans whereas detected an average content of 46.7 µg/kg in beans. They also detected FB1 in 18 of the 35 peanuts samples and in all 10 soybeans samples at a mean amount of 5 and 49 µg/kg, respectively ^[4]. Western highlands is found to be the agroecological zone with high concentrations of mycotoxins.

6. Milk, Eggs, and Fish

The contamination of eggs and cow milk by aflatoxins was reported by Tchana et al. ^[19]. In lactating animals, the conversion rate of AFB1 to its metabolite AFM1 ranges between 0.5% and 6%. AFM1 is not destroyed during pasteurization and heating process and is found in milk and milk products obtained from livestock exposed to AFB1-contaminated feed ^[22]. Few authors reported the contamination of fish by aflatoxins. Samples of fish tissue were collected from different farming sites named Mfou and Batié (center and west Cameroon) ^[21]. Both AFs and AFB1 were detected in the samples at levels that significantly (p < 0.05) change with fish species. Catfish was the most contaminated fish, with AFB1 ranging 1.81–15.69 µg/kg and AF ranging 3.62–31.38 µg/kg. The lowest AFs (0.21 µg/kg) and AFB1 (0.10 µg/kg) levels were observed in kanga. Within each species, a significant variation (p < 0.05) in AFs and AFB1 levels was found: 40 times in the case of tilapia, 50 times in the case of kanga, 8.6 times in the case of catfish, and 2.16 times in the case of carp.

7. Feeds

Cow and beef meat, poultry meat, pork meat, fish, eggs, and milk are among the most frequently consumed foods of animal origin in Cameroon ^[23]. A concentration of AFs in the range of 39–950 µg/kg was reported in peanuts meal destined for poultry feeds ^[5]. The levels of mycotoxins in poultry feeds (generally made up to 80% of maize and sorghum) in Cameroon were assessed by Abia et al. ^[24]. They collected 63 poultry feeds samples from 35 farms situated in areas at high intensity of animal breeding: western highlands (Bamenda, Bafoussam, and Bangante) and southern zone (Yaoundé). All poultry feeds were contaminated by FBs (B1, B2, B3), DON, ZEN, and 20 other mycotoxins that are not yet regulated. With regard to fish farming, in a recent study, they revealed the situation in four regions of Cameroon ^[25]. Feeding practices are characterized by the use of locally formulated powdered feeds (31.7%), animal manure, chicken droppings (20.5%), and pig dung (18.7%). Feed for fish farming is mainly composed of local cotton seeds, groundnut flour, maize, fish flour, and animal manure.

Hazard index is a proportion number indicating the level of contamination compared to the maximum level; this help to appreciate the possibility of risks. Table 2 provides an overview of dietary exposure to mycotoxins through the consumption of contaminated foods in Cameroon, as well as the expected intake compared to the health guidance available.

Table 2. Dietary exposure to mycotoxins through the consumption of contaminated foods in Cameroon. Expected intake compared to health guidance available.

Foodstuff/Agroecological Zone	Food Consumption (Mean, kg/Person/Day)		Contamination (µg/kg)			Estimated Daily Intake (µg/kg bw/day) (Average bw = 60 kg)						Total Daily Intake (µg/kgbw/day) %TDI = (EDI/TDI) × 100
	FAO-FBS (2018)	TDS (2008)	Min	Mean	Max	Min		Mean		Max		TDI	%TDI-FBS (Mean)	%TDI-TDS (Mean)
	FAO-FBS (2018)	TDS (2008)	Min	Mean	Max	FBS	TDS	FBS	TDS	FBS	TDS
Maize	0.14	0.023	AFB1: 0.8	-	20	0.0018	0.003	-	-	0.046	0.007	NE	-	-
			FUM: 50	3684	26	0.12	0.02	8.6	1.4	60.6	9.96	2	430	70
			DON: 100	-	1300	14	2.3	-	-	182	29.9	1	1400	230
			ZEA: 27	69	334	0.063	0.01	0.16	0.026	0.78	0.13	0.5	32	5.2
Rice	0.11123	0.201	OTA: 0.2	-	0.3	0.0003	0.0007	-	-	0.0005	0.001	0.014	3.6	7.1
Cassava	0.265	0.73	AFB1: 6	-	194	0.027	0.073	-	-	0.86	2.36	NE	-	-
Beans	0.0368	0.012	AFL: 0.2	2.4	6.2	0.0001	0.00004	14.72	0.0005	0.004	0.0012	NE	-	-
			FUM: 28	727	1351	0.017	0.0056	0.45	0.15	0.82	0.27	2	22.5	7.5
			ZEA: 27	48	187	0.017	0.005	0.029	0.01	0.11	0.04	0.5	5.8	2
			DON: 13	25	35	0.008	0.0026	0.015	0.005	0.021	0.007	1	1.5	0.5
Peanuts (meal)	NA	NA	AFs: 39	161	950	-	-	-	-	-	-	NE	-	-
Groundnuts	0.0293	0.021	AFB1: 47	-	210	0.023	0.016	-	-	0.1	0.07	NE	-	-
Soybeans	NA	NA	FUM: 25	195	365	-	-	-	-	-	-	2	-	-
			ZEA: 13	110	207	-	-	-	-	-	-	0.5	-	-
			DON: 0.2	2.1	3.9	-	-	-	-	-	-	1	-	-
Coffee	0.0015	0.0018	(Arabica): OTA: 0.12	-	124	0.000003	0.000004	-	-	0.0031	0.004	0.014	22.1	28.6
			(Robusta) OTA: 0.6	-	18	0.000004	0.000018	-	-	0.00045	0.00054	0.014	3.2	3.86
			OTA: 0.04	-	0.1	0.0001	0.001	-	-	0.0004	0.001	0.014	2.85	7.14
Pepper	0	0.0005	(Black) OTA: 1.2	1.5	1.9	0	0.00001	0	0.000013	0	1.6	0.014	0	0.09
Pepper	0	0.0005	(White) OTA: 1.8	3.3	4.9	0	0.000015	0	0.000028	0	4.08	0.014	0	0.2
Eggs	0.0012	0.0039	AFs: -	0.82	-	-	-					NE
Cow milk	NA	NA	AFM1: 0.06	-	0.53	-	-	-	-	-	-	NE	-	-
Spices (Njansang)	0.003	0.0012	AFs: -	0.63	-	-	-	0.000032	0.000013	-	-	NE	-	-
			FUM: -	78.62	-	-	-	0.0039	0.0016	-	-	2	0.195	0.08
			ZEA: -	7.84	-	-	-	0.00039	0.00016	-	-	0.5	0.078	0.032
Vegetable oil	0.004	0.0078	Sterigmatocystin: -	0.7	-	-	-	0.000047	0.0001	-	-	NE	-	-
Tilapia	0.0045	0.0014	AFs: 0.26	4.48	8.64	0.00002	0.000006	0.0003	0.0001	0.0006	0.0002	NE	-	-
Tilapia	0.0045	0.0014	AFB1:0.13	2.23	4.32	0.000009	0.000003	0.0002	0.00005	0.0003	0.0001	NE	-	-
Kanga	0.0045	0.00046	AFs: 0.21	5.84	11.46	0.000015	0.000002	0.00044	0.00004	0.0009	0.0009	NE	-	-
Kanga	0.0045	0.00046	AFB1: 0.1	2.82	5.59	0.0000075	0.0000007	0.0002	0.00002	0.00042	0.00004	NE	-	-
Carp	0.0217	0.00046	AFs: 6.56	11.93	17.35	0.0023	0.000005	0.004	0.000009	0.006	0.00013	NE	-	-
Carp	0.0217	0.00046	AFB1: 3.1	5.87	8.67	0.0011	0.000002	0.002	0.000004	0.003	0.00007	NE	-	-
Catfish	0.0045	0.0014	AFs: 3.62	17.72	31.38	0.0003	0.000008	0.001	0.0004	0.0023	0.0007	NE	-	-
Catfish	0.0045	0.0014	AFB1: 1.81	8.81	15. 69	0.0001	0.000004	0.0007	0.0002	0.0012	0.0003	NE	-	-

NE: Not Established.

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