Bird Deterrent Solutions for Crop Protection

Version	Summary	Created by	Modification	Content Size	Created at	Operation
1		Pedro D. Gaspar	--	3102	2023-04-11 09:47:08	\|
2	format change	Peter Tang	Meta information modification	3102	2023-04-11 10:34:14	\|

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/agriculture13040774

Weeds, pathogens, and animal pests are among the pests that pose a threat to the productivity of crops meant for human consumption. Bird-caused crop losses pose a serious and costly challenge for farmers.

birds deterrents agriculture crops

1. Introduction

Pests, especially weeds, pathogens, and animal pests, pose a threat to the productivity of human-consumable crops. Bird-caused losses to fruit crops pose significant and expensive problems for farmers. Estimates on potential and actual losses caused by different bird species were discussed in a study carried out in Sweden between 2000 and 2015 ^[1]. During those years, there were 2194 complaints of crop damage, corresponding to a total loss of approximately 34,500 tons of various crops. The bird species that caused the most damage were, in order of the percentage of total losses from highest to lowest, the common crane (Grus grus) (33.7%), the barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis) (33.5%), the greylag goose (Anser anser) (26.6%), the bean goose (Anser fabalis fabalis) (2.6%), and the whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus) (2.2%). The remaining 1.4% of the total losses were caused by other birds.

Another study ^[2] aimed at finding out which bird species were directly related to crop damage. Visual damage was collected on 60 randomly selected plants: 12 at each cardinal point and 12 inland in New York State. It was focused on four different crops from 81 field locations: sweet cherry—23; blueberry—12; apple—24; and vine—22. Damages were estimated at 2.3% for apple fields, 3.6% for grapes, 22% for blueberries, and 26.8% for sweet cherries. In addition, surveys were also conducted on farmers with those crops via the Internet, mail, and telephone in New York, Michigan, Washington, Oregon, and California. New York farmers alone pointed out that, all together, they lose about $6.6 million per year and that 65.6% of them are taking measures to scare the birds away. Half of the farmers confirmed that birds are the biggest factor in crop loss.

A study conducted in Poland ^[3] concluded that, in the years 1974 and 1980, 22% and 16%, respectively, of cherry crops were destroyed by sturnids (Sturnidae). The same study also conducted another survey in four districts of Poland aimed at all crops. In Gdansk, 471 surveys were filled out, of which 27% stated with certainty that their fields were damaged by rooks (Corvus frugilegus), and 59% had suspicions that the damage that appeared on their crops was also caused by rooks. In Warsaw, 51% of 378 questionnaire respondents were certain that they had damage caused by rooks. In Kielee, 56% of 351 questionnaire respondents reported damage, and, in Wroclaw, 58% of 276 questionnaire respondents also confirmed damage caused by rooks. In that same survey, overall bird damage was also collected for four crops: wheat, oats, corn, and barley. In the four districts, corn losses ranged from 22% to 32%, wheat losses from 10% to 13%, barley losses from 3 to 18%, and oat losses from 8 to 15%.

2. Visual Deterrents

Visual deterrents present a visual stimulus to the birds that can trigger fear or curiosity. The dangerous feeling can be triggered by a real or simulated predator. In the case of real predators, this can lead to birds’ deaths. By contrast, there can be the use of something birds are not familiar with, such as scarecrows, dyes, lights, reflecting tape, optical gel, kites, balloons, or others. Some of these visual repellents can incorporate audio deterrents as well.

A summary of the studies that have considered visual deterrents is provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of the studies using visual deterrents.

Author	Year	Bird Species	Area	Deterrent Technique	Success Rate	Negative Aspects	Conclusions
^[4]	1990	Phalacrocoracidae	Aquaculture	Scarecrows/Sirens	Effective	N/A	The more realistic the facial and body shape, the more effective scarecrows are likely to be. They can be more detectable if they are painted in bright colors.
^[5]^[6]	1995, 1997	N/A	N/A	Scarecrows/ Lights/Sound	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]	1976, 1979, 1983, 1985, 1980, 1982	N/A	N/A	Scarecrows	Ineffective	Birds get used to it easily.	Short time application, needs to be used with other techniques.
^[13]^[14]^[15]	1990, 1983, 1987	N/A	N/A	Scarecrows	Ineffective	Birds get used to it easily.	Relocate every 2–3 days.
^[16]	1997	Streptopelia orientalis	Flight Cage	Scarecrows	Effective	N/A	Better than stuffed crows or kites.
^[17]	1989	Turdus merula, Anas platyrhynchos, Anser anser	4–6 acres sunflower fields	Scarecrows/ Propane cannon	Effective	N/A	Ducks and geese spook more easily than blackbirds.
^[18]	1974	Charadriiformes	Fishponds	Scarecrows	Ineffective	N/A	Birds get used to it after two hours.
^[19]	1986	N/A	Various crops	Reflective Tape	Effective	May interfere with walking on the terrain.	Tape 0.025 mm thick and 11 mm wide. High winds may increase efficiency.
^[20]	1986	Turdus merula	Crops	Reflective Tape	Effective	May interfere with walking on the terrain. If the tape gets twisted, it can be less effective.	Tape 3 m apart from each other at 0.5 to 1 m from the ground.
^[21]	1990	Anser anser	20.2 hectares of winter wheat	Reflective Tape	Effective	May interfere with walking on the terrain if the tape gets twisted; it can be less effective.	20 mm thick red fluorescent tape. The lines were tied at 40 to 60 m between rows of wheat.
^[22]	1998	N/A	Vineyards	Hawk Kites and Balloons	Ineffective	Birds get used to it easily.	Short-term utilization.
^[23]	1983	N/A	Agricultural	Dead Bird Models	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[14]^[24]^[25]	1983, 1976, 1980	N/A	Airports	Dead Bird Models	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]	1985, 1986, 1987, 1990	Larus delawarensis	City	Dead Bird Models/Pyrotechnics/Falconry	Effective	N/A	The use of this method is recommended, but the positive results are partly due to the use of pyrotechnic material.
^[22]	1984	N/A	Agriculture	Aircraft	N/A	Dangerous to the tripulants.	Not recommended
^[14]^[30]^[31]	1983, 1967, 1990	N/A	Farms/Airports	RC Aircraft	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[32]^[33]	1975, 1981	Sturnidae, Charadriinae, Anser anser, Anas platyrhynchos	Airport, City	RC Aircraft	Very effective	Requires a highly skilled operator.	Birds may habituate slowly to a model aircraft that actively hazes them, especially if it has a falcon shape.
^[34]	1987	Sturnidae	Roost	Lights/Predator Model	Effective	N/A	N/A
^[24]	1976	Anas platyrhynchos	Grain Fields	Searchlights	Effective	May attract birds if it is nighttime or if the weather is cloudy or foggy.	It is recommended in certain weather conditions.
^[35]	1975	Vanellinae, Larinae	Airport	Lights	Effective	N/A	N/A
^[36]	1982	N/A	Airport	Lights	Ineffective	N/A	Whether the plane had its lights on or not, the results were the same.
^[37]	1986	Corvus Corax, Pica, Cyanocitta cristata	Airport	Lights	Ineffective	N/A	Birds were more frightened by the plane than by the lights.
^[38]	1992	Falco sparverius, Leucophaeus atricilla	N/A	Lights	May be effective	N/A	Lights that flash faster increase the birds’ heart rate more in the short term, but lights that flash more slowly manage to keep the average heart rate higher.
^[39]	1976	N/A	N/A	Lights	N/A	N/A	Frequencies should not exceed 100 Hz.
^[40]^[41]	1976, 1976	Larinae, Sturnidae, Columba livia	N/A	Lights	Effective	No repellant effect was observed when the strobe light flashed at higher frequencies to 60 Hz.	Gulls delayed approaching a feeding point by 30 to 45 min.
^[42]	1993	Falco sparverius, Leucophaeus atricilla	Laboratory	Lights	Ineffective	N/A	Birds did become attentive to the lights, but it did not necessarily mean that it frightened them away.
^[14]^[43]	1983, 1977	Anseriformes, Charadriiformes, Passer, Larinae, Turdus merula, Sturnidae	Oil Spill	Lights	Limited effectiveness	Ineffective to gulls (Larinae), blackbirds (Turdus merula), and starlings (Sturnidae).	50–60% success rate.
^[11]	1980	Anseriformes	Oil Spill	Lights	Ineffective	N/A	N/A

3. Auditory Deterrents

These are methods that use auditory techniques to deter birds. Most auditory deterrents also have a visual component.

A summary of the studies that have considered auditory deterrents is provided in Table 2.

Table 2. Summary of the studies using auditory deterrents.

Author	Year	Bird Species	Area	Deterrent Technique	Success Rate	Negative Aspects	Conclusions
^[44]^[45]^[46]^[47]	1939, 1968, 1986, 1989	N/A	Fisheries operations	Shotguns and Rifles	Ineffective	Sometimes the birds die.	N/A
^[17]	1989	N/A	Agricultural fields	Shotguns and Rifles	Ineffective	Sometimes the birds die.	N/A
^[14]^[48]	1983, 1988	N/A	Airports	Shotguns and Rifles	Ineffective	Sometimes the birds die.	N/A
^[49]^[50]	1988, 1991	Phalacrocoracidae, Ardeidae	Fish farms	Shotguns and Rifles	Ineffective	Sometimes the birds die.	Killing some birds only had temporary effects.
^[22]	1998	N/A	Airport	Pyrotechnics	Effective	Birds get used to it easily.	Only used in an initial approach.
^[24]	1976	N/A	N/A	Flares	May be effective	Fire hazard	In conjunction with other techniques, it can help to disperse the birds in a certain direction.
^[51]^[52]^[53]	1980, 1981, 1986	N/A	Landfill sites	Pistols	Effective	N/A	Small area and short-term usage.
^[54]	1991	Branta canadensis	Urban parks	Screamer shells	Very Effective	N/A	Long-term effects, the concentration of geese in the area was reduced by 88%.
^[24]	1976	N/A	N/A	Mortars	May be effective	Highly skilled operator. Safety hazard; there have been several accidents related to the use of mortars.	If they produce a loud bang, they are more effective at daytime and in a larger area than other pyrotechnic devices.
^[55]^[56]	1974, 1990	N/A	N/A	Gas cannon	N/A	N/A	The noise of the explosion resembles or is louder than that of a 12-gauge shotgun.
^[52]^[53]	1981, 1986	N/A	Areas up to 4 ha	Gas cannon	Effective	N/A	Proven to be effective deterrents for areas up to 4 ha in the cases of nongame species.
^[57]^[58]^[59]	1984, 1990, 1990	Laridae	Landfill	Gas cannon and others	Effective	N/A	Gas cannons, in combination with other dispersal methods such as pyrotechnics, have been found to reduce numbers of gulls.
^[14]^[24]	1983, 1976	N/A	Various Crops	Av-alarm	Effective	N/A	AV-alarms appear to have been used successfully to reduce numbers of small birds.
^[60]	1985	Sturnus vulgaris, Passer melanurus, Ploceus velatus	Grape culture	Av-alarm	Effective	N/A	Can be effective in reducing the damage to grapes.
^[61]	1970	Sturnidae	Blueberry crops	Av-alarm and others	Effective	N/A	It worked better in conjunction with shotguns or propane cannons.
^[62]	1978	Telluraves	Cornfields	Av-alarm and gas cannon	Effective	N/A	Better results were obtained by combining both methods.
^[63]	1983	N/A	N/A	Av-alarm	Ineffective	N/A	AV-alarm was not as effective as distress calls in repelling birds.
^[64]^[65]	1990, 1990	N/A	N/A	Av-alarm	Ineffective	Birds accustomate to this sound.	Birds accustomate to this sound.
^[66]	1979	Sturnidae	N/A	Av-alarm	Ineffective	N/A	Starlings only increased slightly the heart rate when they were exposed to AV-alarm.
^[67]^[68]	1973, No date	Aequornithes	Aquatic terrain	Av-alarm	May be effective	N/A	Insufficient details to assess changes in bird numbers.
^[69]^[70]	1973, 1968	Laridae	Airport	Predator Sounds	Effective	N/A	The playback of a Peregrine Falcon call was effective at dispersing gulls.
^[71]	1957	Anas platyrhynchos	Ponds	High-intensity Sounds	Effective	Can cause hearing damage and other human health effects.	Some birds vacate the pond after two or three days.
^[72]	1986	Laridae	N/A	Ultrasounds	Ineffective	N/A	Found no evidence that gulls either heard or reacted to ultrasounds.
^[73]	1992	N/A	N/A	Ultrasounds	Ineffective	N/A	Bird population did not decrease in more than 5%.
^[74]	1996	N/A	N/A	Infrasounds	Ineffective	N/A	Birds do not associate these sounds with danger.

4. Chemical Deterrents

Chemical aversion techniques have been used in a variety of contexts, from residential areas ^[75]^[76] and cities, to agriculture and airports ^[77]^[78]^[79]. Birds do not tend to get used to these types of techniques.

A summary of the studies that have considered chemical deterrents is provided in Table 3.

Table 3. Summary of the studies using chemical deterrents.

Author	Year	Bird Species	Area	Deterrent Technique	Success Rate	Negative Aspects	Conclusions
^[75]^[76]	1988, 1990	N/A	Residential area	Chemical	N/A	N/A	Birds tend to not get used to it.
^[77]^[78]^[79]	1976, 1984, 1988	N/A	Cities, agriculture, and airports	Chemical	N/A	N/A	Birds tend to not get used to it.
^[80]	1997	Sturnidae	Laboratory	Tactile repellents	May be effective	N/A	It may be possible to develop non-lethal, plant-based dermal repellent.
^[22]	1998	N/A	N/A	Tactile repellents	May be effective	N/A	Plant compounds that have been tested caused agitation and hyperactivity in the birds.
^[22]	1998	N/A	N/A	Behavioral Repellents	N/A	Can cause disorientation and erratic behavior.	N/A
^[14]^[81]^[82]	1983, 1983, 1990	N/A	N/A	Behavioral Repellents	Effective	If the dose is too high, it can lead to the bird’s death.	Unaffected birds from the flock eventually escape due to the warning signal from the flock mate.
^[14]^[81]^[82]^[83]^[84]^[85]	1983, 1983, 1990, 1970, 1973, 1970	Sturnidae, Turdus merula, Passeriformes, Laridae, Corvus Corax	Air bases	Behavioral Repellents	Effective	N/A	N/A
^[22]	1998	Branta Canadensis, Laridae, Sturnidae	Laboratory, sanitary landfill, airports	ReJeX-iT	Effective	N/A	ReJeX-iT can be effective at deterring birds in certain situations, but the doses used in some studies were not effective.
^[86]	1992	Anas platyrhynchos, Branta Canadensis	Laboratory	Dimethyl and Methyl anthranilate	Very Effective	N/A	When subjected only treated grain, both ducks and geese reduced their food intake.
^[87]	1995	Larus delawarensis, Larus argentatos, Anas platyrhynchos	Pools of water in fields	Methyl anthranilate	Effective	N/A	N/A
^[88]	1996	Branta Canadensis	N/A	Methyl anthranilate	Ineffective	N/A	Product concentration used in ^[87] did not repelled this species.
^[89]	1993	N/A	Ponds at airports	ReJeX-iT	Effective	N/A	Bird numbers decreased in treated ponds.

5. Exclusion Deterrents

These are devices or materials used to serve as a physical barrier. If access to a certain area, for example, where there is food or shelter, is restricted, the birds will leave the area and move on. There are also apparent barriers (i.e., there is no actual barrier).

Physical barriers are normally made up of wire mesh, polyethylene, or other synthetic materials and serve to prevent birds from approaching a specific area. They also serve to prevent them from nesting in these areas. The metal mesh can also be interconnected with electrified wires so that when birds land there they receive a harmless shock ^[90]^[91]^[92].

A summary of the studies that have considered exclusion deterrents is provided in Table 4.

Table 4. Summary of the studies using exclusion deterrents.

Author	Year	Bird Species	Area	Deterrent Technique	Success Rate	Negative Aspects	Conclusions
^[90]^[91]^[92]	1978, 1981, 1981	N/A	N/A	Exclusion	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[93]	1936	Aequornithes	Aquaculture ponds	Overhead Wires and Lines	Effective	N/A	Recommended as a method of deterring waterbirds from fishponds.
^[52]	1981	N/A	Fish-rearing facilities	Overhead Wires and Lines	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[94]	1990	Aequornithes	N/A	Overhead Wires and Lines	Effective	N/A	The effectiveness of overhead wires or lines varies widely among species and circumstances.
^[22]	1998	N/A	Fruit trees	Overhead Wires and Lines	Effective	High costs and difficult application in large areas.	It solves the problem of the presence of birds in a permanent way.
^[22]	1998	N/A	Sanitary landfill	Foam	May be effective	Its effectiveness would be reduced in rainy or windy weather.	It could be used to cover small areas that are particularly attractive to birds.
^[22]	1998	N/A	Lakes, ponds…	Bird Balls	May be effective	N/A	Are very easy to install and require significantly less maintenance.

6. Habitat Modification

Habitat modification is the removal or alteration of the natural characteristics of a site. It may include trees and shrubs, the removal of ponds, planting in areas without flora, planting crops that are not attractive to birds, such as tall grass, eliminating possible nesting areas, the use of exclusion methods barriers, and even chemical agents used in the birds’ natural foods.

A summary of the studies that have considered habitat modification methods is provided in Table 5.

Table 5. Summary of the studies using habitat modification methods.

Author	Year	Bird Species	Area	Deterrent Technique	Success Rate	Negative Aspects	Conclusions
^[95]	1968	N/A	N/A	Tall Grass	N/A	Long grass can attract rodents and birds of prey.	Prevents some birds from accessing food.
^[96]	1996	N/A	Airport	“Poor grass”	Effective	N/A	Bird numbers on poor grass were as low or lower than on long grass.
^[97]	1996	N/A	N/A	Mowing at nighttime	Not Tested	N/A	Mowing late in the day or overnight can reduce the attractiveness of this activities.
^[98]	1997	N/A	Airport	Mowing at nighttime	Effective	N/A	Mowing late in the day or overnight can reduce the attractiveness of this activities.
^[99]	1988	Laridae	Landfill	Changing water/feeding zones	Effective	N/A	By removing the water/food, the area is no longer attractive to birds.

7. Removal Deterrents

This method consists of catching birds and releasing them away or eliminating them, either with traps, poison, or the use of lethal ammunition. It is a method that requires skills to be used, because it may use materials that can be lethal to humans as well. Using lethal methods would only work in the short term and only reduce the bird’s local population.

A summary of the studies that have considered removal deterrents is provided in Table 6.

Table 6. Summary of the studies using removal deterrents.

Author	Year	Bird Species	Area	Deterrent Technique	Success Rate	Negative Aspects	Conclusions
^[100]	1968	Agelaius	Corn fields	Traps	Ineffective	N/A	Due to the number of birds in the group, it is impossible to catch them all.
^[101]^[102]^[103]	1974, 1987, 1990	N/A	N/A	Traps	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[90]	1978	Butorides virescens	Fish farm	Traps	Effective	Transportation costs	The birds were released 40 km from the point where they were trapped, and never came back.
^[7]^[104]^[105]	1976, 1970, 1986	Larinae	Airport	Live Ammunition	Ineffective	Birds habituate easily.	It was seen that in the short term it was effective
^[106]^[107]^[108]^[109]	1968, 1970, 1976, 1991	N/A	N/A	Surfactants	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[110]	1997	Turdus merula, Sturnidae	N/A	Surfactants	Effective	38.2 million blackbirds and starlings were killed between 1974–1992.	PA-14 did solve local roost problems.
^[104]	1976	Laridae	Airbase	Falconry, Pyrotechnics	Effective	It was necessary to replace two falcons each year.	Four goshawks were successfully used at an airbase in Holland to clear the runways from gulls.
^[111]	1970	Laridae	Airbase	Falconry	Effective	N/A	Gulls showed no signs of habituating to the goshawks during the two-year study.
^[112]	1996	Laridae	Military Airfield	Falconry	N/A	N/A	Not recommend as a routine method for bird control at civil airfields.
^[113]	1978	Laridae	Airfields	Falconry, Pyrotechnics, Model Gulls	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[26]^[27]^[28]	1985, 1986, 1987	Branta Canadensis	Airfields	Falconry	Ineffective	N/A	N/A
^[114]	1983	Columba palumbus	Brassica fields	Falconry	Ineffective	N/A	After repeated attacks by the goshawk, the pigeons usually resettled and continued to feed.
^[115]	1978	Laridae	Landfill	Falconry	Very effective	Some birds died	The effectiveness seemed to derive from the cumulative effects of several bird control episodes.
^[22]^[116]^[117]	1998, 1965, 1980	Laridae	N/A	Falconry	N/A	Falcons cannot fly with bad weather.	Dealing with gulls with bad weather is a problem.

8. Other Deterrent Techniques

A summary of the studies that have considered other deterrent techniques is provided in Table 7.

Table 7. Summary of the studies using other deterrent techniques.

Author	Year	Bird Species	Area	Deterrent Technique	Success Rate	Negative Aspects	Conclusions
^[118]	1976	Anseriformes	Agriculture	Lure Area	N/A	N/A	Attracting and holding birds so that they will not go elsewhere.
^[119]^[120]^[121]^[122]	1975, 1974, 1978, 1981	N/A	N/A	Magnetic Field, Microwaves	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[123]	1997	Sturnus vulgaris	N/A	Magnetic Field	Ineffective	N/A	Only been proven to disorient birds and not to disperse them.
^[124]^[125]	1971, 1973	N/A	N/A	Microwaves	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[126]	1985	N/A	N/A	Microwaves	N/A	N/A	N/A
^[127]^[128]	1965, 1969	Laridae, Melopsittacus undulatus, Gallus gallus domesticus, Columbidae	Laboratory	Microwaves	N/A	The radiation levels are considerably higher than the levels that are safe for humans.	N/A
^[74]^[129]^[130]^[131]^[132]^[133]	1996, 1946, 1949, 1954, 1971, 1972	N/A	N/A	Microwaves	N/A	N/A	Few studies have reported that radars have caused behavioral changes in flying birds.
^[134]^[135]	1972, 1965	Sturnidae, Anas platyrhynchos, Laridae	Laboratory	Laser	N/A	Could cause hemorrhage in birds’ eyes.	Not recommended
^[136]	1980	Laridae	Landfill	Laser	Ineffective	N/A	Not recommended

References

Montràs-Janer, T.; Knape, J.; Nilsson, L.; Tombre, I.; Pärt, T.; Månsson, J. Relating National Levels of Crop Damage to the Abundance of Large Grazing Birds: Implications for Management. J. Appl. Ecol. 2019, 56, 2286–2297.
Henrichs, H.M.; Boulanger, J.R.; Curtis, P.D. Limiting Bird Damage to Fruit Crops in New York: Damage Assessments and Potential Management Strategies for the FutureWildlife Damage Management. In Proceedings of the Wildlife Damage Management, Clemson, SC, USA, 25–28 March 2013; p. 180.
Pinowski, J.; Zając, Z.R. Damage to Crops Caused by Bird in Central Europe. In Granivorous Birds in the Agricultural Landscape; PWN: Warszawa, Poland, 1990; pp. 333–345.
Littauer, G. Avian Predators. Frightening Techniques for Reducing Bird Damage at Aquaculture Facilities; Southern Regional Aquaculture Center: Uvalde, TX, USA, 1990; Volume 401.
Stickley, A.R.; Mott, D.F.; King, J.O. Short-Term Effects of an Inflatable Effigy on Cormorants at Catfish Farms. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 1995.
Andelt, W.F.; Woolley, T.P.; Hopper, S.N. Effectiveness of Barriers, Pyrotechnics, Flashing Lights, and Scarey Man for Deterring Heron Predation on Fish. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 1997, 25, 686–694.
Blokpoel, H. Bird Hazards to Aircraft; Clarke, Irwin and Company Limited: Toronto, ON, Canada, 1976; Volume 326.
Conover, M.R. Response of Birds to Raptor Models. In Proceedings of the Bird Control Seminar 8, Bowling Green, OH, USA, 30 October–1 November 1979; pp. 16–24.
Conover, M.R. Pole-Bound Hawk-Kites Failed to Protect Maturing Cornfields from Blackbird Damage. In Proceedings of the Bird Control Seminar 9, Bowling Green, OH, USA, 4–6 October 1983; pp. 85–90.
Conover, M.R. Protecting Vegetables from Crows Using an Animated Crow-Killing Owl Model. J. Wildl. Manag. 1985, 49, 643.
Boag, D.A.; Lewin, V. Effectiveness of Three Waterfowl Deterrents on Natural and Polluted Ponds. J. Wildl. Manag. 1980, 44, 145–154.
Hothem, R.L.; DeHaven, R.W. Raptor-Mimicking Kites for Reducing Bird Damage to Wine Grapes. In Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference 10, Monterey, CA, USA, 23–25 February 1982; pp. 171–178.
Hussain, I. Trapping, Netting and Scaring Techniques for Bird Control; Brooks, J.E., Ahmad, E., Hussain, I., Eds.; Pakistan Agricultural Research Council: Islamabad, Pakistan, 1990; pp. 187–191.
DeFusco, R.P.; Nagy, J.G. Frightening Devices for Airfield Bird Control. Ph.D. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA, 1983; p. 274.
LGL Limited. Handbook of Wildlife Control Devices and Chemicals; LGL Ltd.: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1987; p. 102.
Nakamura, K. Estimation of Effective Area of Bird Scarers. J. Wildl. Manag. 1997, 61, 925.
Nomsen, D.E. Preventing Waterfowl Crop Damage; Knittle, C., Parker, R.D., Eds.; United States Fish Wildlife Service: Washington, DC, USA, 1989.
Naggiar, M. Man vs. Birds; Florida Wildlife: Melbourne, FL, USA, 1974.
Bruggers, R.L.; Brooks, J.E.; Dolbeer, R.A.; Woronecki, P.P.; Pandit, R.K.; Tarimo, T.; Hoque, M. Responses of Pest Birds to Reflecting Tape in Agriculture. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 1986, 14, 161–170.
Dolbeer, R.A.; Woronecki, P.P.; Bruggers, R.L. Reflecting Tapes Repel Blackbirds from Millet, Sunflowers, and Sweet Corn. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 1986, 14, 418–425.
Summers, R.W.; Hillman, G. Scaring Brent Geese Branta Bernicla from Fields of Winter Wheat with Tape. Crop. Prot. 1990, 9, 459–462.
Transport Canada, Evaluation of the Efficacy of Products and Techniques for Airport Bird Control. Available online: https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/publications/evaluation-efficacy-products-techniques-airport-bird-control-03-1998-tp-13029 (accessed on 20 December 2022).
Naef-Daenzer, L. Scaring of Carrion Crows (Corvus Corone Corone) by Species-Specific Distress Calls and Suspended Bodies of Dead Crows. In Proceedings of the Bird Control Seminar, Bowling Green, OH, USA, 4–6 October 1983; pp. 91–95.
Koski, W.R.; Richardson, W.J. Review of Waterbird Deterrent and Dispersal Systems for Oil Spills; Association Conservation Canada Environment, PACE: Toronto, ON, Canada, 1976.
Inglis, I.R. Visual Bird Scarers: An Ethological Approach; Wright, E.N., Inglis, I.R., Feare, C.J., Eds.; British Crop Protection Council: Croydon, UK, 1980; pp. 161–170.
Watermann, U. Ring-Billed Gull Control Programme at Tommy Thompson Park; Report by U.W. Enterprises for Metropolitan Toronto and Region Conservation Authority: Downsview, ON, Canada, 1985; p. 24.
Watermann, U. Ring-Billed Gull Control Programme at Tommy Thompson Park; Report by U.W. Enterprises for Metropolitan Toronto and Region Conservation Authority: Downsview, ON, Canada, 1986; p. 26.
Watermann, U. Ring-Billed Gull Control Programme at Tommy Thompson Park; Report by U.W. Enterprises for Metropolitan Toronto and Region Conservation Authority: Downsview, ON, Canada, 1987; p. 22.
Watermann, U.; Cunningham, G. Ring-Billed Gull Control Programme, Tommy Thompson Park; Bird Control International: Milton, ON, Canada, 1990.
Saul, E.K. Birds and Aircraft: A Problem at Auckland’s New International Airport. J. R. Aeronaut. Soc. 1967, 71, 366–376.
Parsons, J.L.; Hiscock, E.H.J.; Hicklin, P.W. Reduction of Losses of Cultured Mussels to Sea Ducks; Economic Regional Development Agreement Report No. 17; Nova Scotia Department of Fisheries, Industrial Development Division: Halifax, NS, Canada, 1990; p. 69.
Ward, J.G. Use of a Falcon-Shaped Model Aircraft to Disperse Birds; LGL Ltd.: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1975.
Solman, V.E.F. Birds and Aviation. Env. Conserv. 1981, 8, 45–51.
Krzysik, A.J. A Review of Bird Pests and Their Management; Technical Report; U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory: Champaign, IL, USA, 1987; p. 114.
Lawrence, J.H., Jr.; Bauer, A.B.; Childers, C.A.; Coker, M.J.; Eng, R.K.; Kerker, R.; Mas, G.E.; Naish, J.M.; Potter, J.G.; Rhodes, G.F.; et al. Bird Strike Alleviation Techniques; McDonnell Douglas Corp: Columbus, OH, USA, 1975; Volume 1.
Zur, B.J. Bird Strike Study; Air Transport World. 1982. Available online: https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/publications/evaluation-efficacy-products-techniques-airport-bird-control-03-1998-tp-13029/literature-cited (accessed on 15 December 2022).
Briot, J.L. Last French Experiments Concerning Bird-Strike Hazards Reduction. In Proceedings of the Bird Strike Committee Europe 18, Copenhagen, Denmark, 26–30 May 1986; pp. 202–208.
Bahr, J.; Erwin, R.; Green, J.; Buckingham, J.; Peel, H. A Laboratory Assessment of Bird Responses to an Experimental Strobe Light Deterrent; The Delta Environmental Management Group Ltd. and Southwest Research Institute: Sidney, BC, Canada, 1992.
Laty, M. Startling of Birds by Light: Experimental Measures, Current Research. In Proceedings of the Bird Strike Committee Europe 11, London, UK, 13–17 May 1976.
Belton, P. Effects of Interrupted Light on Birds; Simon Fraser University: Burnaby, Canada, 1976.
Solman, V.E.F. Aircraft and Birds. In Proceedings of the Bird Control Seminar 7; National Research Council: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1976; pp. 83–88.
Green, J.; Bahr, J.; Erwin, R.; Buckinham, J.; Peel, H. Reduction of Bird Hazards to Aircraft: Research and Development of Strobe Light Technology as a Bird Deterrent; San Antonio-Texas: Vancouver, BC, USA, 1993.
United States Department of the Interior Methods for Dispersing Birds. Part IX in Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Plan; United States Department of the Interior Methods for Dispersing Birds: Atlanta, GA, USA, 1977; pp. 48–58.
Lagler, K.F. The Control of Fish Predators at Hatcheries and Rearing Stations. J. Wildl. Manag. 1939, 3, 169.
Davidson, P.E. The Oystercatcher—A Pest of Shellfisheries. In The Problems of Birds As Pests; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1968; pp. 141–155.
Anderson, J.M. Merganser Predation and Its Impact on Atlantic Salmon Stocks in the Restigouche River System; Atlantic Salmon Federation: St. Andrews, UK, 1986.
The Nature Conservancy Council. Fishfarming and the Safeguard of the Natural Marine Environment of Scotland; The Nature Conservancy Council: Edinburgh, UK, 1989.
BSCE “The Green Booklet”. Some Measures Used in Different Countries for Reduction of Bird Strike Risk around Airports; Aerodrome Working Group, Bird Strike Committee Europe: Helsinki, Finland, 1988; p. 73.
EIFAC—European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission. Working Party on Prevention and Control of Bird Predation in Aquaculture and Fisheries Operations. 1988. Available online: https://tc.canada.ca/en/aviation/publications/evaluation-efficacy-products-techniques-airport-bird-control-03-1998-tp-13029/literature-cited (accessed on 15 December 2022).
Coniff, R. Why Catfish Farmers Want to Throttle the Crow of the Sea. Smithson. J. 1991, 22, 44–45.
Mott, D.F. Dispersing Blackbirds and Starlings from Objectionable Roost Sites. In Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference 9, Sacramento, CA, USA, 4–6 March 1980; pp. 38–42.
Salmon, T.P.; Conte, F.S. Control of Bird Damage at Aquaculture Facilities; United States Fish Wildlife Service, and Wildlife Management Leaflet: Atlanta, GA, USA, 1981; Volume 475.
Salmon, T.P.; Conte, F.S.; Gorenzel, W.P. Bird Damage at Aquaculture Facilities; Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska: Lincoln, UK, 1986.
Aguilera, E.; Knight, R.L.; Cummings, J.L. An Evaluation of 2 Hazing Methods for Urban Canada Geese. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 1991, 19, 32–35.
Feare, C.J. Ecological Studies of the Rook (Corvus Frugilegus L.) in North-East Scotland. Damage and Its Control. J. Appl. Ecol. 1974, 11, 897.
Nelson, P. Serious Pests Need Serious Treatment. Orchard. N. Z. 1990, 63, 25–27.
Risley, C.; Blokpoel, H. Evaluation of Effectiveness of Bird-Scaring Operations at a Sanitary Landfill Site near CFB Trenton, Ontario, Canada. In Proceedings of the Wildlife Hazards to Aircraft Conference and Training Workshop, Charleston, SC, USA, 22–25 May 1984; pp. 265–273.
Miller, G.W.; Davis, R.A. Independent Monitoring of the 1990 Gull Control Program at Britannia Sanitary Landfill Site; LGL Ltd.: King City, CA, USA, 1990.
Miller, G.W.; Davis, R.A. Monitoring of a Gull Control Program at Britannia Sanitary Landfill Site: Autumn 1989; LGL Ltd.: King City, CA, USA, 1990.
Jarvis, M.J.F. Problem Birds in Vineyards. Deciduous Fruit Grow. 1985, 35, 132–136.
Nelson, J.W. Bird Control in Cultivated Blueberries. In Proceedings of the Bird Control Seminar 5; Virginia Department of Agriculture And Commerce: Richmond, VA, USA, 1970; pp. 98–100.
Potvin, N.; Bergeron, J.-M.; Genest, J. Comparaison de Méthodes de Répression d’oiseaux s’attaquant Au Maïs Fourrager. Can. J. Zool. 1978, 56, 40–47.
Booth, T.W. Bird Dispersal Techniques; Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska: Lincoln, NE, USA, 1983.
Bomford, M.; O’Brien, P.H. Sonic Deterrents in Animal Damage Control: A Review of Device Tests and Effectiveness. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 1990, 18, 411–412.
Devenport, E.C. Wild Bird Control. County Program Addresses Health and Nuisance Problems. Environ. Health 1990, 53, 25–27.
Thompson, R.D.; Johns, B.E.; Grant, C.V. Cardiac and Operant Behavior Response of Starlings (Sturnus Vulgaris) to Distress and Alarm Sounds. In Proceedings of the Bird Control Seminar. 1979, pp. 119–124. Available online: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1016&context=icwdmbirdcontrol (accessed on 15 December 2022).
Crummett, J.G. A Study of Bird Repelling Techniques for Use during Oil Spills; University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Washington, DC, USA, 1973.
Crummett, J.G. Bird Dispersal Techniques for Use in Oil Spills; University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Washington, DC, USA, 1973.
Gunn, W.W.H. Experimental Research on the Use of Sound to Disperse Dunlin Sandpipers. 1973. Available online: https://www.arlis.org/docs/vol1/I/30850927.pdf (accessed on 16 December 2022).
Thompson, R.D.; Grant, C.V.; Pearson, E.W.; Corner, G.W. Differential Heart Rate Response of Starlings to Sound Stimuli of Biological Origin. J. Wildl. Manag. 1968, 32, 888.
Thiessen, G.J.; Shaw, E.A.G.; Harris, R.D.; Gollop, J.B.; Webster, H.R. Acoustic Irritation Threshold of Peking Ducks and Other Domestic and Wild Fowl. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1957, 29, 1301–1306.
Beuter, K.J.; Weiss, R. Properties of the Auditory System in Birds and the Effectiveness of Acoustic Scaring Signals. In Proceedings of the Bird Strike Committee Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark, 26–30 May 1986; pp. 60–73.
Hamershock, D.M. Ultrasonics as a Method of Bird Control; Wright Lab Wright-Patterson AFB: Dayton, OH, USA, 1992.
Short, J.J.; Kelley, M.E.; McKeeman, J. Recent Research into Reducing Birdstrike Hazards. In Proceedings of the International Bird Strike Committee Proceedings and Papers 23, London, UK, 24–28 May 1996; pp. 381–407.
Fitzwater, W.D. Solutions to Urban Bird Problems. In Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference 13. 1988, pp. 254–259. Available online: https://www.arlis.org/docs/vol1/I/30850927.pdf (accessed on 16 December 2022).
Woronecki, P.P.; Dolbeer, R.A.; Seamans, T.W. Use of Alpha-Chloralose to Remove Waterfowl from Nuisance and Damage Situations. In Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference 14. 1990, pp. 343–349. Available online: https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9g52w6gd (accessed on 16 December 2022).
Clark, D.O. An Overview of Depredating Bird Damage Control in California. In Proceedings of the—Bird Control Seminar 7; 1976; pp. 21–27. Available online: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmbirdcontrol/47/ (accessed on 25 December 2022).
Conover, M.R. Comparative Effectiveness of Avitrol, Exploders, and Hawk-Kites in Reducing Blackbird Damage to Corn. J. Wildl. Manag. 1984, 48, 109.
Knittle, C.E.; Cummings, J.L.; Linz, G.M.; Besser, J.F. An Evaluation of Modified 4-Aminopyridine Baits for Protecting Sunflower from Blackbird Damage. In Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference 13. 1988, pp. 248–253. Available online: https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US8924811 (accessed on 25 December 2022).
Clark, L. Dermal Contact Repellents for Starlings: Foot Exposure to Natural Plant Products. J. Wildl. Manag. 1997, 61, 1352.
White, T.M.; Weintraub, R. A Technique for Reduction and Control of Herring Gulls at a Sanitary Landfill; Waste Age, University of California: Davis, CA, USA, 1983; pp. 66–67.
Brooks, J.E.; Hussain, I. Chemicals for Bird Control; PARC: Islamabad, Pakistan, 1990.
Caldara, J.D. The Birds as a Menace to Flight Safety. In Proceedings of the World Conference on Bird Hazards to Aircraft, Kingston, ON, Canada, 2–5 September 1970.
Wooten, R.C., Jr.; Meyer, G.E.; Sobieralski, R.J. Gulls and USAF Aircraft Hazards; National Technical Information Service United States Department of Commerce: Alexandria, VA, USA, 1973. Available online: https://nimby.ca/PDFs/TP13029B.pdf (accessed on 25 December 2022).
Seaman, E.A. U.S. Air Force Problems in Bird/Aircraft Strikes. In Proceedings of the World Conference on Bird Hazards; National Reserch Council Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1970; pp. 87–90.
Cummings, J.L.; Otis, D.L.; Davis, J.E. Dimethyl and Methyl Anthranilate and Methiocarb Deter Feeding in Captive Canada Geese and Mallards. J. Wildl. Manag. 1992, 56, 349.
Belant, J.L.; Gabrey, S.W.; Dolbeer, R.A.; Seamans, T.W. Methyl Anthranilate Formulations Repel Gulls and Mallards from Water. Crop Prot. 1995, 14, 171–175.
Belant, J.L.; Seamans, T.W.; Tyson, L.A.; Ickes, S.K. Repellency of Methyl Anthranilate to Pre-Exposed and Naive Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manag. 1996, 60, 923.
Dolbeer, R.A.; Belant, J.L.; Clark, L. Methyl Anthranilate Formulations to Repel Birds from Water at Airports and Food at Landfills. In Proceedings of the Great Plains Wildlife Damage Control Conference 11. 1993, pp. 42–53. Available online: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1328&context=gpwdcwp (accessed on 25 December 2022).
Mott, D.F. Control of Wading Bird Predation at Fish-Rearing Facilities; National Audubon Society: New York, NY, USA, 1978; pp. 131–132.
Meyer, J. Fish Farmer 4; 1981; pp. 23–26. Available online: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1981/1653/contents/made (accessed on 25 December 2022).
Ueckermann, E.; Spittler, H.; Graumann, F. Technische Maßnahmen Zur Abwehr Des Graureihers(Ardea Cinerea) von Fischteichen Und Fischzuchtanlagen. Z. Jagdwiss. 1981, 27, 271–282.
McAtee, W.L.; Piper, S.E. Excluding Birds from Reservoirs and Fishponds; U.S. Govt. Print. Off: Washington, DC, USA, 1936; Volume 120.
Pochop, P.A.; Johnson, R.J.; Agüero, D.A.; Eskridge, K.M. The Status of Lines in Bird Damage Control—A Review. In Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference 14; 1990; pp. 317–324. Available online: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/188129715.pdf (accessed on 25 December 2022).
Wright, E.N. Modification of the Habitat as a Means of Bird Control. In The Problems of Birds As Pests; Murton, R.K., Wright, E.N., Eds.; Elsevier: London, UK, 1968; pp. 97–105.
Dekker, A.; Van der Zee, F.F. Birds and Grassland on Airports. In Proceedings of the International Bird Strike Committee Proceedings and Papers 23, London, UK, 13–17 May 1996; pp. 291–305.
Potter, C. Birds and Bird Control at Two Ontario Airports (Ottawa and North Bay Airport). In Proceedings of the Appendix 9, Minutes of the 25th Meeting of Bird Strike Committee, Toronto, ON, Canada, November 1996; Available online: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44517477 (accessed on 25 December 2022).
Demarchi, M.W.; Searing, G.F. Experimental Control of Earthworms with Terraclor at Vancouver International Airport; LGL Limited for Aerodrome Safety Branch, Transport Canada: Vancouver, BC, Canada, 1997.
Patton, S.R. Abundance of Gulls at Tampa Bay Landfills. Wilson Bull. 1988, 100, 431–442. Available online: https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v100n03/p0431-p0442.pdf (accessed on 25 December 2022).
Shake, B. Orchard Bird Control with Decoy Traps. In Proceedings of the Bird Control Seminar 4. 1968, pp. 115–118. Available online: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmbirdcontrol/169/ (accessed on 25 December 2022).
Hardman, J.A. Bird Damage to Sugar Beet. Ann. Appl. Biol. 1974, 76, 337–341.
Draulans, D. The Effectiveness of Attempts to Reduce Predation by Fish-Eating Birds: A Review. Biol. Conserv. 1987, 41, 219–232.
Beg, M.A. General Principles of Vertebrate Pest Management. In Proceedings of the Pakistan Agriculture Research Council; Brooks, J.E., Ahmad, E., Hussain, I., Munir, S., Khan, A., Eds.; PARC: Islamabad, Pakistan, 1990.
Heighway, D.G. Falconry in the Royal Navy. In Proceedings of the World Conference on Bird Hazards National Research Council Canada; Kuhring, M.S., Ed.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1970.
Harrison, M.J. Municipality of Anchorage Sanitary Landfill Bird Hazard Analysis and Mitigation; Washington, DC, USA, 1986.
Harke, D. Wetting Agents and Their Role in Blackbird Damage Control. In Proceedings of the Bird Control Seminar 4; National Research Council Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1968; pp. 104–108.
Smith, R.N. The Use of Detergent Spraying in Bird Control. In Proceedings of the Bird Control Seminar 5; National Research Council Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1970; pp. 138–140.
Lustick, S.I. Wetting as a Means of Bird Control. In Proceedings of the Bird Control Seminar 7; National Research Council Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1976; pp. 41–47.
Glahn, J.F.; Stickley, A.R., Jr.; Heisterberg, J.F.; Mott, D.F. Impact of Roost Control on Local Urban and Agricultural Blackbird Problems. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 1991, 7, 511–522.
Dolbeer, R.A.; Mott, D.F.; Belant, J.L. Blackbirds and Starlings Killed at Winter Roosts. In Proceedings of the Eastern Wildlife Damage Management Conference 7; National Research Council Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1997; pp. 77–86.
Mikx, F.H.M. Goshawks at Leeuwarden Airbase. In Proceedings of the World Conference on Bird Hazards; Kuhring, M.S., Ed.; National Research Council Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1970; pp. 203–205.
Hahn, E. Falconry and Bird Control of a Military Airfield and a Waste Disposal Site; Vogel und Luftverkehr Bd: 1996. Available online: http://79.170.44.121/falconryheritage.org/uploads/itemUploads/3314/IBSC23%20WP37.pdf (accessed on 20 December 2022).
Blokpoel, H.; Tessier, G.D. Control of Ring-Billed Gull Colonies at Urban and Industrial Sites in Southern Ontario, Canada. In Proceedings of the 3rd Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conference, Gulf Shores, AL, USA, October 1978; Available online: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=ewdcc3 (accessed on 20 December 2022).
Kenward, R.E. The Influence of Human and Goshawk Accipiter Gentilis Activity on Wood-Pigeons Columba Palumbus at Brassica Feeding Sites. Ann. Appl. Biol. 1978, 89, 277–286.
Risley, C.J. Bird Observations and Bird Control Measures at a Sanitary Landfill Site near Canadian Forces Base Trenton, Ontario; Canadian Wildlife Service: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1983.
Wright, E.N. A Review of Bird Scaring Methods Used on British Airfields; Le Probleme des Oiseaux sur les Aerodromes; Busnel, R., Giban, J., Eds.; Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique: Paris, France, 1965; pp. 10–22.
Blokpoel, H. Gull Problems in Ontario; Canadian Wildlife Service: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1980.
Sugden, L.G. Waterfowl Damage to Canadian Grain: Current Problem and Research Needs; Canada Wildlife Service Occasional Paper No. 24; Canada Wildlife Service: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1976.
Moore, F.R. Influence of Solar and Geomagnetic Stimuli on the Migratory Orientation of Herring Gull Chicks. Auk 1975, 92, 655–664.
Southern, W.E. The Effects of Superimposed Magnetic Fields on Gull Orientation. Wilson Bull. 1974, 86, 256–271.
Southern, W.E. Orientation Responses of Ring-Billed Gull Chicks: A Re-Evaluation; Schmidt-Koenig, K., Keeton, W.T., Eds.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 1978; pp. 311–317.
Wiltschko, R.; Nohr, D.; Wiltschko, W. Pigeons with a Deficient Sun Compass Use the Magnetic Compass. Science 1981, 214, 343–345.
Belant, J.L.; Ickes, S.K. Mylar Flags as Gull Deterrents. In Proceedings of the Great Plains Wildlife Damage Control Conference 13, 1997. Available online: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1358&context=gpwdcwp (accessed on 20 December 2022).
King, N.W.; Justesen, D.R.; Clarke, R.L. Behavioral Sensitivity to Microwave Irradiation. Science 1971, 172, 398–401.
Frey, A.H.; Messenger, R. Human Perception of Illumination with Pulsed Ultrahigh-Frequency Electromagnetic Energy. Science 1973, 181, 356–358.
Byman, D.; Wasserman, F.E.; Schlinger, B.A.; Battista, S.P.; Kunz, T.H. Thermoregulation of Budgerigars Exposed to Microwaves (2.45 GHz, CW) during Flight. Physiol. Zool. 1985, 58, 91–104.
Tanner, J.A. The Effects of Microwave Radiation on Birds: Some Observations and Experiments. In Proceedings of the National Research Council Canada Associate Committee on Bird Hazards to Aircraft, Ottawa, ON, USA, 1965. Available online: https://canadianbirdstrike.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Blokpoel_1976-1.pdf (accessed on 20 December 2022).
Tanner, J.A.; Davie, S.J.; Romero-Sierra, C.; Villa, F. Microwaves—A Potential Solution to the Bird Hazard Problem in Aviation. In Proceedings of the Wordl Conference on Bird Hazards to Aircraft, Kingston, ON, USA, 2–5 September 1969; pp. 215–221.
Poor, H.H. Birds and Radar. Auk 1946, 63, 315–318.
Drost, R. Zugvögel Perzipieren Ultrakurzwellen. Vogelwarte 1949, 1949, 57–59.
Knorr, O.A. The Effect of Radar on Birds. Wilson Bull. 1954, 66, 264.
Hild, J. Beeinflussung Des Kranichzuges Durch Elektromagetische Strahlung? Wetter Und Leben 1971, 23, 45–52.
Wagner, G. Untersuchungen Über Das Orientierungsverhalten von Brieftauben Unter RADAR-Bestrahlung. Rev. Suisse De Zool. 1972, 79, 229–244.
Lustick, S.I. Physical Techniques for Controlling Birds to Reduce Aircraft Strike Hazards (Effects of Laser Light on Bird Behavior and Physiology). 1972. Available online: https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD0754269 (accessed on 20 December 2022).
Seubert, J.L. Biological Studies of the Problems of Bird Hazard to Aircraft; Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique: Paris, France, 1965.
Mossler, K. Laser and Symbolic Light on Birds in Order to Prevent Bird/Aircraft Collisions. In Proceedings of the Bird Strike Committee Europe 14, The Hague, The Netherlands, 22–26 October 1980.

© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.

Upload a video for this entry

Information

Subjects: Agricultural Engineering

Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :

Eduardo B. Micaelo

Leonardo G. P. S. Lourenço

Pedro D. Gaspar

João M. L. P. Caldeira

Vasco N. G. J. Soares

View Times: 546

Update Date: 11 Apr 2023

Table of Contents

Video Upload Options

Confirm