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The Kellogg–Briand Pact or Pact of Paris – officially the General Treaty for Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy – is a 1928 international agreement on peace in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve "disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them". The pact was signed by Germany, France, and the United States on 27 August 1928, and by most other states soon after. Sponsored by France and the U.S., the Pact is named after its authors, United States Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg and French foreign minister Aristide Briand. The pact was concluded outside the League of Nations and remains in effect. A common criticism is that the Kellogg–Briand Pact did not live up to all of its aims, but it has arguably had some success. It was unable to prevent the Second World War, but it was the base for trial and execution of Nazi leaders in 1946. Furthermore declared wars became very rare after 1945. However, it has also been ridiculed for its moralism, legalism and lack of influence on foreign policy. The pact had no mechanism for enforcement, and many historians and political scientists see it as mostly irrelevant and ineffective. However, the pact did serve as the legal basis for the concept of a crime against peace, for which the Nuremberg Tribunal and Tokyo Tribunal tried and executed the top leaders responsible for starting World War II. With the signing of the Litvinov Protocol in Moscow on February 9, 1929, the Soviet Union and its western neighbors, including Romania, agreed to put the Kellogg–Briand Pact in effect without waiting for other western signatories to ratify. The Bessarabian Question had made agreement between Romania and the Soviet Union challenging and dispute between the nations over Bessarabia continued. Similar provisions to those in the Kellogg-Briand Pact were later incorporated into the Charter of the United Nations and other treaties, which gave rise to a more activist American foreign policy which began with the signing of the pact.
References
- Kellogg–Briand Pact 1928, Yale University, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/kbpact.asp
- "UNTC". http://treaties.un.org/Pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=0800000280168041.
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- "The Avalon Project : The Kellogg-Briand Pact – Hearings Before the Committee on Foreign Relations United States". http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/kbhear.asp.
- Westminster, Department of the Official Report (Hansard), House of Commons. "House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 16 Dec 2013 (pt 0004)". https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmhansrd/cm131216/text/131216w0004.htm#131216w0004.htm_wqn20.
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- Menand, Louis (18 September 2017). "Drop Your Weapons". The New Yorker (Condé Nast).
- Hathaway, Oona A.; Shapiro, Scott J. (2017). The Internationalists: How a Radical Plan to Outlaw War Remade the World. Simon and Schuster. p. xv. ISBN 978-1-5011-0986-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=WSs0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA15.
- For detailed discussion by several scholars see [H-Diplo ROUNDTABLE XXI-15 "https://issforum.org/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable-XXI-15.pdf"]
- Hathaway and Shapiro, The Internationalists pp 311–335.
- Article 2, Budapest Articles of Interpretation (see under footnotes), 1934 http://www.roberthjackson.org/Man/theman2-7-6-2/
- Article 5, Budapest Articles of Interpretation (see under footnotes), 1934 http://www.roberthjackson.org/Man/theman2-7-6-2/
- Silke Marie Christiansen (2016). Climate Conflicts – A Case of International Environmental and Humanitarian Law. Springer. p. 153. ISBN 9783319279459. https://books.google.com/books?id=BKcqDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA153.
- Kelly Dawn Askin (1997). War Crimes Against Women: Prosecution in International War Crimes Tribunals. p. 46. ISBN 978-9041104861. https://books.google.com/books?id=ThfzGvSvQ2UC&pg=PA46.
- Julie M. Bunck, and Michael R. Fowler. "The Kellogg-Briand Pact: A Reappraisal." Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 27 #2(2018): 229–76 online https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/tulicl27&div=16&id=&page=
