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Ti6Al4V alloy is an ideal lightweight structural metal for a huge variety of engineering applications due to its distinguishing combination of high specific mechanical properties, excellent corrosion resistance and biocompatibility. Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) provides very different mechanical properties from that of casting or wrought Ti6Al4V. The inherent specificities of the LPBF process, as the layer-by-layer building strategy; the powder feedstock; the melting phenomena and thermal gradients, define the mechanical properties, once they will dictate the microstructural features (e.g. grain size, crystal growth direction, residual porosity and defects, among other).
Property | Stainless Steel 316 L (Cast) | F75 CoCrMo Alloy (Cast) |
Cortical Human Bone |
Ti6Al4V Alloy (Wrought) | Aluminium Alloy A357 (Cast) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Density (g/cm3) | 8.0 | 8.8 | 1.5–2 | 4.4 | 2.7 |
Yield strength (MPa) | 205 | 500–1500 | - | 830–1070 | 265–275 |
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) | 515 | 900–1800 | 130–190 | 920–1140 | 331–351 |
Tensile modulus of elasticity (GPa) | 195–205 | 200–230 | 10–30 | 100–110 | 70–75 |
Elastic elongation (%) | 10–40 | 4–13 | - | 10–15 | 6 |
Company | SLM Solutions GmbH (Germany) |
EOS GmbH (Germany) |
Concept Laser GmbH (Germany) |
Renishaw (UK) |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Equipment | SLM 125HL [36] |
SLM 250HL | SLM 280HL [37] |
EOSINT M270 |
EOSINT M280 [38] |
EOSINT M290 [39] |
M2 cusing [40] |
AM 250 |
Build Envelope (mm3) | 125 × 125 × 125 | - | 280 × 280 × 365 | 250 × 250 × 215 | 250 × 250 × 325 | 250 × 250 × 325 | 250 × 250 × 280 | 250 × 250 × 300 |
Laser details | IPG fiber laser 400W |
IPG fiber laser 400W |
IPG fiber laser 400, 700 or 1000W | Yb-fiber laser 200W |
Yb-fiber laser 200 or 400W |
Yb-fiber laser 400W | Fiber laser 200 or 400W |
Yb-fiber laser 200W |
Tensile strength | [6][41] | [32][42][43] | [44] | [45][46][47] | [48][49][50][51][52] | [53][54][55] | [31] | [56][57][58] |
Tensile strain | [6][41] | [32][42][43] | [44] | [45][46][47] | [48][49][50][51] | [53][54] | [31] | [56][57][58] |
Young’s Modulus | [6] | - | [59] | [45][60] | [49] | [54] | [56] | |
Fatigue behavior | - | [15][32][61][62][63][64] | [63] | [45][46][65] | [48][49][51][66] | [54][55] | [31] | |
Fatigue crack analysis | - | [32][61][62][63][64][67] | [63] | [45][46][47][65] | [49][51] | [54] | [31] | |
Hardness | [7][68] | [64] | - | [45] | [69] | [70] | [57] | |
Density | [7][68] | [4][42] | - | [60][71][72] | [69] | [54] | [31][73] | [58] |
Microstructure | [6][7][74] | [32][42][43][62][75] | [44][59] | [45][46][47][60][65][72] | [48][49][50][52][69] | [53][55][76] | [31] | [58][77][78] |
Heat treatments | [32][43][61][62][63][64] | [44][63] | [48][49][50][52] | [54] | [57] | |||
Parameters assessment | [7][41] | [4][42] | - | [45][72] | [70] | [31][73] | [58] | |
Surface roughness | - | [50][51][76] | [70][76] |
Reference | Yield Strength (MPa) |
Tensile Strength (MPa) |
Tensile Strain (%) |
Young’s Modulus (GPa) |
Direction |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benedetti et al. [84] | 1015 | 1090 | 10 | 113 | - |
Shunmugavel et al. [6] | 964 1058 |
1041 1114 |
7 3 |
113 109 |
longitudinal transversal |
Vandenbroucke et al. [85] | 1125 | 1250 | 6 | 93 | - |
Vrancken et al. [86] | 1110 | 1267 | 7.3 | 109 | transversal |
Edwards et al. [15] | 910 | 1035 | 3 | - | transversal |
Vilaro et al. [34] | 1137 | 1206 | 7.6 | 105 | longitudinal |
962 | 1166 | 1.7 | 102 | transversal | |
Koike et al. [87] | 850 | 960 | 6.8 | - | - |
Anatoliy et al. [44] | 1200 | 1280 | 2.4 | - | - |
Gong et al. [45] | 1098 | 1237 | 8.8 | 109 | - |
Leuders et al. [32] | 1008 | 1080 | 1.6 | - | - |
Wysocki et al. [88] | 1150 | 1246 | 1.4 | - | longitudinal |
1273 | 1421 | 3.2 | - | transversal | |
Kasperovich et al. [31] | 802 | 1062 | 12.7 | - | longitudinal |
Rafi et al. [47] | 1195 1143 |
1269 1219 |
5 4.9 |
- - |
longitudinal transversal |
Mower et al. [49] | 972 1096 |
1034 1130 |
- - |
109 115 |
longitudinal transversal |
Huang et al. [57] | 970 | 1191 | 5.4 | - | - |
Fachini et al. [80] | 990 | 1095 | 8.1 | 110 | - |
Reference | Condition/Heat Treatment | YS (MPa) | TS (MPa) | TS’ (%) | Microstructure |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kasperovich et al. [31] | Wrought | 927 | 984 | 19.3 | globular α + β (Figure 1a) |
As-built | 736 | 1051 | 11.9 | α′ acicular, column width < 0.5 μm (Figure 1b) |
|
700 °C–1 h–FC (10 °C/min) | 1051 | 1115 | 11.3 | α′ acicular, column width < 1.0 μm (Figure 1c) |
|
900 °C–2 h followed by 700 °C–1 h–FC (10 °C/min) |
908 | 988 | 9.5 | elongated primary α grains in a β matrix (Figure 1d) |
|
HIP (900 °C/100 MPa–2 h) followed by 700 °C–1 h–FC (10 °C/min) | 885 | 973 | 19 | elongated primary α grains in a β matrix (Figure 1e) |
|
Vilaro et al. [34] | As-built | 1137 | 1206 | 7.6 | α′ acicular (Figure 2a) |
730 °C–2 h–AC | 965 | 1046 | 9.5 | α′ acicular embedded in α + β phases (Figure 2b) |
|
950 °C–1 h–WQ | 944 | 1036 | 8.5 | α′ acicular, α and β (Figure 2c) |
|
1050 °C–1 h–WQ | 913 | 1019 | 8.9 | α′ acicular (Figure 2d) | |
Huang et al. [57] | As-built | 970 | 1191 | 5.4 | α′ acicular (Figure 3a) |
800 °C–2 h–AC | 1010 | 1073 | 17.1 | less fine α′ acicular embedded in α + β phases (Figure 3b) |
|
950 °C–2 h–AC | 893 | 984 | 14.2 | α laths in β matrix (Figure 3c) |
|
1050 °C–1 h–AC | 869 | 988 | 13.3 | equiaxed and α-equiaxed prior β grains (Figure 3d) |
|
1200 °C–1 h–AC | 897 | 988 | 11.3 | α-equiaxed prior β grains | |
Vrancken et al. [86] | Forged | 960 | 1006 | 18.4 | α + β |
As-built | 1110 | 1267 | 7.3 | α′ acicular (Figure 4a) |
|
540 °C–5 h–WQ | 1118 | 1223 | 5.4 | - | |
850 °C–2 h–FC (0.04 °C/s) | 988 | 1004 | 12.8 | α′ acicular, α and β (Figure 4b) |
|
940 °C–1 h–AC followed by 650 °C–2 h–AC |
899 | 948 | 13.6 | long columnar prior β grains (Figure 4c) |
|
1015 °C–0.5 h–AC followed by 730 °C–2 h–AC |
822 | 902 | 12.7 | - | |
1015 °C–0.5 h–AC followed by 843 °C–2 h–FC (0.04 °C/s) |
801 | 874 | 13.5 | α + β | |
1020 °C–2 h–FC (0.04 °C/s) | 760 | 840 | 14.1 | α + β (Figure 4d) |
|
Leuders et al. [32] | As-built | 1008 | 1080 | 1.6 | α′ acicular |
800 °C–1h–FC | 962 | 1040 | 5 | α′ acicular, α + β | |
1050 °C–1 h–FC | 798 | 945 | 11.6 | α + β | |
HIP (920 °C/1000 bar)–2 h–FC | 912 | 1005 | 8.3 | α + β |