Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Gianluca Polgar
 -- 3648 2022-04-27 11:40:20 |
2 update references and layout
Amina Yu
 -9 word(s) 3639 2022-04-28 03:16:52 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Video Production Services to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Polgar, G.; , .; Volta, P. The Italian Alpine and Subalpine trouts. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/22365 (accessed on 26 December 2024).
Polgar G,  , Volta P. The Italian Alpine and Subalpine trouts. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/22365. Accessed December 26, 2024.
Polgar, Gianluca, , Pietro Volta. "The Italian Alpine and Subalpine trouts" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/22365 (accessed December 26, 2024).
Polgar, G., , ., & Volta, P. (2022, April 27). The Italian Alpine and Subalpine trouts. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/22365
Polgar, Gianluca, et al. "The Italian Alpine and Subalpine trouts." Encyclopedia. Web. 27 April, 2022.
The Italian Alpine and Subalpine trouts
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/biology11040576

Among the valid nominal taxa of the native trouts described in the Italian peninsula and the major Italian islands, Salmo cettii Rafinesque-Schmaltz 1810 was described from Sicily (type locality: Val Demone in northeastern Sicily and Val di Noto in southeastern Sicily, no types known). S. marmoratus (Cuvier 1829) is a subendemism of northern Italy described from the “lacs de Lombardie" (syntypes not available). S. cenerinus Nardo 1847 was described from northeastern Italy (type locality: not far from the sea, in rivers draining to the Venetian lagoon; no types known). The original description of S. cenerinus was written from the late 1700s to the early 1800s by S. Chiereghin, and published posthumously; a summary of this description was first published by Nardo. S. macrostigma (Duméril 1858) has been considered by several authors as an Italian trout; however, it was described from North Africa (type locality: Oued-el-Abaïch, Kabylie, Algeria). S. ghigii Pomini 1941 was described from central Italy (type locality: Sagittario River; no types known). S. fibreni Zerunian and Gandolfi 1990, described from the Lake Posta Fibreno in central Italy, and S. carpio Linnaeus 1758, described from Lake Garda, are restricted endemisms defined by ecomorphological and genetic traits. The island of Sardinia might host an undescribed Salmo species (Segherloo et al.).

recreational fisheries fishery management introgressive hybridization non-native species allochthonous species trout fishing trout taxonomy

1. Native Italian Trouts and the Taxonomy of the “Peninsular Trout”

The short description and illustration of S. cenerinus [1] may correspond to the pelagic morph of several anadromous Salmo species ([2][3], pers. obs.). Nardo [4] modified his previous view [1], raising doubts on the original description of S. cenerinus, accepting the view of [5] (cited as 1858 by [4]), and eventually considering this taxon as a synonym of Trutta fario L. (= S. trutta). Heckel and Kner [5] reported only two trout species from the Venetian Provinces: Salar Ausonii Valenciennes 1848 [6] (= Trutta fario L. sensu [4]) and Fario carpio (= Trutta carpio sensu [4] = S. carpio) from the Garda Lake. While Salar genivittatus Hecker and Kner 1858 was subsequently recognized as a morph of S. marmoratus [7], Heckel and Kner [5] considered S. marmoratus as a color morph of Salar Ausonii. Therefore, Nardo [4] likely considered the marble trout of this area as color morphs of Trutta fario.
Kottelat [7] assigned S. cettii to the native peninsular Tyrrhenian and southern Italian trout, including islands, and “tentatively” assigned S. cenerinus to the native north-Italian (Adriatic) peninsular trout. Consistently, he did not consider S. cenerinus as jun. syn. of S. marmoratus, since “there would be no available name for the present species and it should be either listed as Salmo sp. or a new name should be created for it”. Kottelat [7] also synonymized S. ghigii with S. cettii apparently only because Pomini [8] was unable to discriminate the trouts of the Sagittario River from the Sardinian trouts. Kottelat and Freyhof [9] accepted the point of view of Kottelat [7], while noting that “recently (…) suggest that the trouts of Sicily (…) belong to a distinct molecular lineage (…). If confirmed, this lineage should retain the name S. cettii; the name S. ghigii would probably be the valid name of the others”.
Using combined mitochondrial (mtDNA) and nuclear (nDNA) markers, Segherloo et al. [10] found a close relationship between the Sicilian trout of Val di Noto and Atlantic S. trutta. A consistent result was found by another nuclear phylogenetic one of the Moroccan trouts, which included the Sicilian trout of Val di Noto in a robust “Afro-Atlantic clade”, likely originated from a colonization wave of an Atlantic lineage from Iberia (“Duero” lineage; [11]). The only North-African sample analyzed by Segherloo et al. [10], that these are tentatively assigned to Salmo pellegrini Werner 1931, is closely related to Mediterranean and Adriatic brown trouts, thus clearly belonging to a different lineage; this sample comes from the Oum er-Rbia River, where Snoj et al. [11] identified trouts of an “Atlas clade”. Several were showed that the Sicilian trout is morphologically distinct from other Italian trouts [12][13][14][15][16]. Mitochondrial phylogenies also show that the Sicilian trout is included in a clade of North-African trouts, which also includes the sequenced types of S. macrostigma [17] and the Atlantic trout lineage, called the “Southern Atlantic clade” [18][19]. However, no nuclear or combined mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenies were ever constructed including the types of S. macrostigma, which may be unrelated to the Afro-Atlantic clade.
Rafinesque-Schmaltz [20] described S. cettii from two trout populations: Val di Noto and Val Demone. The molecular phylogeny of S. cettii has been investigated only using the former population, since no genetic samples have ever been collected and analyzed from the Val Demone, which has likely been extirpated [21]. The recovery and analysis of any such molecular sample (for example, from a museum lot) would have important consequences on the scientific names of Italian trout lineages. There are three possible scenarios: (i) the Val Demone population belongs to an undescribed endemic trout lineage; (ii) the Val Demone population is conspecific with the peninsular trout; (iii) the Val Demone and Val di Noto populations are conspecific.
With the limitation of substantial sample biases, several did not find genetic or ecological discontinuities between native northern (South-western Alps [22]) and central-southern peninsular trout lineages that would justify the designation of different taxa, except S. carpio and S. fibreni [23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. Segherloo et al. [10] assigned trout samples of the upper reaches of the Po drainage to S. cf. cenerinus, and samples of the Zrmanja and Mornos basins (Balkan peninsula) to Salmo farioides Karaman 1938, in the same area of its type locality (Krka River, Croatia [30]; neotype designated by Bianco [31]). S. cenerinus was found in brackish conditions [1][32], however the only native Italian trout recorded in the sea is S. marmoratus [33]. Further, there presently are no known native populations (nor genetic traces of past populations) of peninsular trout in the area where S. cenerinus was described. On the other hand, anadromous non-native populations of S. trutta, including hybrids, are known to occur in the Adriatic region, including Italian waters [34][35]. Chiereghin died in 1820, and likely described S. cenerinus from the late 1700s to the early 1800s. Fish culture projects, possibly including non-native S. trutta, started in this area in the second half of the 19th century [4]. On the other hand, the hypothesis that the trout described by Chiereghin was a pelagic morph of S. trutta cannot be ruled out, since introductions of non-native salmonids, possibly including S. trutta, have occurred in northern Italy at earlier times (Section 3). In the 1970s, Borroni and Grimaldi [36] just reported that introductions of non-native S. trutta had been occurring “for decades” in Italy. Bianco and Delmastro [37] and Bianco [31] synonymized S. marmoratus and S. cenerinus based on the illustration of S. cenerinus [32], its anadromous habits [1][32], and information gleaned from Gridelli [38], who reported only the presence of the marble trout in the Venezia Giulia Region, previous to stocking activities of non-native brown trouts, which started in 1934. However, Nardo’s [1] Venetian Provinces of the 1850s (type locality of S. cenerinus) are geographically distinct from Gridelli’s [38] Venezia Giulia Region of the 1930s [39]. Bianco [31] synonymized S. ghigii with S. farioides, however: (i) no neotype of S. ghigii was designated, likely due to the difficulty of finding “purebred” individuals in the type locality; (ii) no molecular analyses were conducted; (iii) the synonymy was essentially based on coloration patterns and biogeographical reconstructions. Therefore, it was chosen not to consider S. ghigii as a junior synonym of S. farioides. As a result, until evidence is provided of introductions of non-native S. trutta in the area where S. cenerinus was described, it was considered that S. cenerinus as jun. syn. of S. marmoratus sensu Bianco [31]. While genetic differences between peninsular-trout populations have been found at different geographic scales [40][41], until more comprehensive genetic and ecological data are made available on Tyrrhenian and Adriatic native Italian trouts, it was tentatively considered that S. ghigii as a valid name for all the populations of Italian peninsular trout, sensu Zanetti et al. [42] and Lorenzoni et al. [43].

2. Phylogeny and Phylogeography of S. marmoratus

Nuclear phylogenetic reconstructions and molecular clocks defined a robust S. marmoratus clade, including two distinct northern and southern Adriatic clades that diverged ~0.84 ± 0.4 million years ago (mya) [44][45], and whose taxonomic status has not yet been evaluated. Pustovrh et al. [45] showed that S. marmoratus is closely related to a nuclear “S. trutta complex” lineage, including several clades associated with different brown-trout taxa, and estimated the divergence between these two lineages at 1.4 ± 0.8 mya (2.2–0.6 mya). A fossil-calibrated nDNA phylogeny estimated an earlier divergence, at ~4–5 mya [46]. An extensive molecular phylogeny combining nDNA and mtDNA sequences rooted with S. salar, essentially consistent with previous nDNA phylogenetic reconstructions, supported S. marmoratus as a phylogenetic species of possibly hybrid origins, sister to a clade including >20 Salmo species [10].
In northern Italy, northern Adriatic S. marmoratus populations are strongly associated with the “Marmoratus” (MA) haplogroup of the mtDNA control region (D-loop) [18][47][48][49][50]. However, MA haplotypes have also been found in several brown trout taxa and populations of Greece, Albania, Croatia, central Italy, and Corsica, e.g., [40][44][49][51]. Like several other brown trout taxa and populations, in the Balkans Southern Adriatic S. marmoratus populations can be associated with the “Adriatic” (AD) mtDNA haplogroup [45][50].
Mitochondrial molecular clocks estimated much more recent origins of the MA and AD haplogroups (0.21–0.05 mya and 0.39–0.13 mya, respectively, considering the 95% highest probability density intervals estimated using two different substitution rates [40]) than the time of divergence between S. marmoratus and the nuclear “S. trutta complex”. It was suggested that the observed mitochondrial-nuclear phylogenetic discordance might be the effect of incomplete lineage sorting or asymmetric introgressive hybridization (mtDNA capture; for example, [52]). The much older time of divergence between these lineages relative to the time of haplogroup differentiation strongly supports the latter mechanism. Paleointrogressive hybridization between the marble trout and the Apennine Mediterranean trout could have occurred during several secondary contacts as a consequence of the expansion of the Po paleo-basin during glacial maxima, as it occurred in other Salmo species [18][24][28][35][44][53]. Mosaic distributions of mtDNA haplogroups among different taxa are common also in areas without a history of non-native trout’s stocking (e.g., Albania [54]), and similar distributional and diversity patterns might have occurred in Italy after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM ~18,000 years ago).
Phylogenetic patterns, molecular clocks and the zoogeography of congeners suggest that S. marmoratus is one of the Salmo lineages that diverged in the paleo-Adriatic drainage, in freshwater refuges formed during the preceding Lago Mare phase (~5 mya). During the Pleistocene, reduced salinity, cooler sea temperatures, and extensive palaeo-river basins would have facilitated the westward dispersal of these freshwater lineages across the region through multiple waves of colonization, bottlenecks, and secondary contacts [24][50][54], allowing S. marmoratus to colonize the orographic left tributaries of the palaeo-Po basin [31][55][56]. After the LGM, increased salinity levels and sea-level rise disconnected these populations, facilitating allopatric fragmentation and differentiation of mtDNA lineages, resulting in the present geographic distribution [24].
In the northern Adriatic basin, S. marmoratus exhibit a west-to-east geographic gradient in MA-s1 and MA-s2 haplotype distribution, consistent with the described stepwise westward migration and phylogeographic scenario [57]. Significant microgeographic genetic differentiation was also measured within basins, e.g., between rivers and their tributaries, suggesting the presence of limited gene flow among different populations [58][59]. A contact zone between S. marmoratus and S. ghigii was found in the South-western Alps (Section 3).

3. Presence of S. ghigii in the Italian Alpine and Subalpine Region

Within the Italian Alpine region [60], viable native populations of S. ghigii have only been found in the South-western Alps (Cottian and Maritime Alps: upper Stura di Lanzo, upper Dora Riparia, upper Chisone, upper Pellice, upper Po, upper Stura Demonte, upper Gesso, and upper Tanaro basins), where a contact zone with S. marmoratus was described, along a geographic distribution gradient of genetic variants associated with different trout phyletic lineages [3][18][23][25][40][51][56][59][61][62][63]; Section 2. The MA, AD, and “Mediterranean” (ME) haplotype probability densities relative to elevation show an altitudinal zonation suggesting local habitat differentiation between the two parapatric species, with S. marmoratus being dominant at 0–1000 m above sea level (asl) and S. ghigii at 1000–2000 m asl [40]. These findings are consistent with the distributional patterns of trouts with different phenotype, described in some historical accounts [64][65][66].
The South-western Alps are a known glacial refuge, where native populations of S. marmoratus and S. ghigii could have survived the LGM [62]. Introgression rates of alien Atlantic genes into native trout populations are here highly variable (0–70%; [23]). In contrast, in most of the North-western and South-eastern Alps [60] only the lower tracts of the rivers were unaffected by the ice cap during the LGM. Assuming that S. ghigii and S. marmoratus exhibited a habitat segregation pattern analogous to that presently observed in the South-western Alps, the LGM likely allowed the survival of S. marmoratus at lower altitudes, while S. ghigii might have been pushed into the marble trout habitat and outcompeted [62]. After the last glaciation, most Alpine lakes and headwaters may have only marginally been colonized by S. marmoratus and likely remained “fishless” (i.e., troutless). In historical times, these systems were artificially stocked with translocated salmonids, including non-native Atlantic S. trutta [62], to support subsistence and recreational fisheries [67][68][69]. The capacity of S. marmoratus to outcompete other trout species was observed by Sommani [70], who observed that in specific water courses marble trout is able to rapidly replace brown trout (S. trutta fario = S. ghigii or S. trutta;  and he was unable to discriminate between these species), when restocking practices are interrupted.
In the Lake of Garda basin, a known glacial refugium [71] in the South-eastern Alps [60], it [72] was found traces of the mitochondrial variant ADcs-1 (the most widespread AD haplotype [40], typically associated with the “Adriatic grouping” of S. trutta fario, sensu [25] = S. ghigii). The prehistoric presence of S. ghigii in the Lake Garda refugium is also consistent with the presence in S. carpio of haplotypes phyletically related to haplogroups typically associated with S. ghigii (AD) and S. marmoratus (MA), suggesting that one or more paleohybridization events occurred in this basin between these trout lineages [23][25][28][40]. This also supports the hypothesis of extensive secondary contacts and hybridization events between peninsular and marble trout lineages before the last glaciation in this region [28]. The ADcs-1 haplotype was also found in two museum specimens with lacustrine morphs collected in Lake Garda and Lake Maggiore in 1877 and 1879, respectively [63]. Lake Maggiore is another known glacial refugium [71][73] located in the North-western Alps [60]. The presence of AD haplotypes in these basins suggests that relict populations of S. ghigii might have survived the LGM in other glacial refugia of the North-western and South-eastern Alps. More speculatively, since S. marmoratus is the only native trout with lacustrine morphs in this region, this might also indicate the more common presence of marble trouts with AD haplotypes in this basin in past historical times, or even the presence of recently extinct and undescribed trout taxa [23][74][75].
With the only exception of the South-western Alps, the absence of viable populations of S. ghigii in northern Italy clearly indicates that all relict populations of S. ghigii that might have survived to the LGM in other glacial refugia were subsequently extirpated. This might have reasonably occurred due to demographic or genetic swamping [76] caused by the man-made massive and prolonged introductions of non-native S. trutta in historical times. Consistently, introgression rates of Atlantic S. trutta into S. marmoratus are higher in the North-western and South-eastern Alps, and only traces of the haplogroups typically associated with native S. ghigii were found [61][62]. This scenario is supported by the probabilistic approach adopted by [72], which showed that, in spite of the massive introductions of S. trutta, genetic traces of extirpated S. ghigii populations could still be found in some glacial refugial areas such as the Lake Garda basin. Such dramatic effects could have been facilitated by strong numerical differences between native S. ghigii populations and S. trutta introductions, low hybrid fitness, and weak reproductive barriers. By contrast, the presence of partial reproductive barriers between non-native S. trutta and S. marmoratus [59][77], the competitive advantage of S. marmoratus [70], and marble-trout stocking could have prevented the lineage or local genomic extinction of the latter species. In spite of the presence of high introgression rates [62], neither demographic swamping nor local genomic extinctions of native Apennine S. ghigii have ever been described in the Tuscano-Latium Italian ichthyogeographic region, where non-native S. trutta have been and are being introduced. On the other hand, these S. ghigii populations were much less impacted by habitat modification or competition with other species during the LGM, and were likely larger and less fragmented when they were flooded by S. trutta introductions.
Some were found the allozymic variants LDH-C1*100 and TF*102, typically associated to S. ghigii populations in trout populations native to France and south-west Piedmont, in sites collected east of the South-western Alps, hence suggesting the presence of S. ghigii outside the mentioned contact zone with S. marmoratus [40]. However, these allozymes were also found at high frequency in Danubian native populations of different Salmo species [22][78][79]. Largiadèr and Scholl [80] assumed the native status of an “Adriatic fario” in a large portion of the Po basin, based on molecular ones conducted in south-western Piedmont [22] and on phenotypic ones that were however unable to discriminate between Atlantic (S. trutta) and Adriatic (S. ghigii) trout phenotypes [81]. These were found these two allozymic variants at high frequency (~20–30%) in Engadin (Danubian basin), in the Müstair, tributary of the Adige River, and in the Poschiavo valley (Po basin, Poschiavino Torrent, tributary of the Adda River); and at low frequency (~0–10%) in the Ticino and Valais basins, including a tributary of the Diveria Torrent (Chrummbach). No “purebred” individuals were found. In fact, all these populations had been directly or indirectly either entirely replaced or heavily stocked with trout lineages of the Danubian basin via the Poschiavo hatcheries, for at least one century before collection [80]. This would explain the genetic similarities between the trouts of the Poschiavino and Ticino valleys, subsequently detected by others using microsatellite and AFLP markers to investigate the adaptive divergence and phylogeographic patterns of trout populations of the Rhine, Rhone, and Po basins [82][83]. Just like [80], also these were assumed the presence of an “Adriatic trout” (S. cenerinus, sensu [9] = S. ghigii; Section 1) in the Poschiavino and Ticino valleys, based [9][80][81]. However, given the lack of genetic references (allele size range) of Danubian trout populations (possibly Salmo labrax Pallas 1814 [82][83]) it is not possible to know whether the observed “Adriatic” genetic traces in the Poschiavino and Ticino valleys were originally present in this region, or were left by introduced Danubian stocks [82], as also suggested by the presence of Danubian mtDNA haplotypes (DA haplogroup) in the Ticino basin [57]. Keller et al. [82][83] also found evidence of introgression of the Poschiavo population into one Rhine population (SE). SE is the closest Rhine population to the Danubian drainage, suggesting the presence of stocking activities and translocations between SE, Poschiavo, and Danubian systems.
There are several descriptive accounts (cuisine recipes, anecdotes, poetry, and even paintings e.g., [84]) of trouts in the North-western and South-eastern Alps (e.g., Lakes of Como and Garda basins) before the dramatic expansion of the fish-culture industry that promoted the rapid diffusion of the non-native Atlantic S. trutta in the early 19th century (1850–1893, [85]). Several ones [86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93] depict or describe trouts without a marbled coloration pattern and with either red and black dots, phenotypically compatible with several trout taxa, or with speckled dark patterns on a silvery background, compatible with a generalized pelagic (lacustrine) morph of anadromous trout. Adult S. marmoratus living in rivers typically exhibit a marbled coloration pattern [94]; however, anadromous individuals in pelagic conditions can exhibit a silvery and dark-speckled coloration pattern, even leading to taxonomic confusion, e.g., [95].
Young marble trout typically exhibit an irregular black or red-and-black dotted pattern, with a large black preopercular blotch, similar to adult brown trouts [94] (Figure 1a); the dark dotted pattern can change to a marbled pattern in a few months in subadults (Figure 2a–d); and adults living in small and fast-flow streams can become reproductive at half the typical length at maturity, while retaining a “brown-trout” red or red-and-black dotted pattern [96] (Figure 1b,c).
Biology 11 00576 g002 550
Figure 1. Examples of dotted coloration patterns in S. marmoratus: juvenile coloration pattern (a), and adults living in small and fast-flowing streams (b,c); (a) juvenile from Roledo (Piedmont, Verbano-Cusio-Ossola: VCO; 46°10′16.7″ N 8°18′49.7″ E), 15.5 cm total length—TL, 29.0 g wet mass, 22 months of age, black-and-red dotted pattern, MA haplogroup, qMa 0.995 (admixture proportion of a cluster including purebred S. marmoratus references), 90% BCI 0.966–1.000; (b) adult (reproductive) specimen from Rio Ischielle, tributary of the Avisio Torrent (Province of Trento); the specimen was collected from a population which resided for 2 generations in this small stream, which descended from hatchery-reared S. marmoratus with marbled phenotype collected from the Adige River [96]; 26.9 cm TL, courtesy of Leonardo Pontalti; (c) adult (reproductive) specimen from Rio della Balma, tributary of the Sangone River (Province of Torino), 18.5 cm TL, MA haplogroup, qMa 0.996, 90% BCI 0.978–1.000, courtesy of Paolo Lo Conte.
Biology 11 00576 g003 550
Figure 2. Examples of dotted coloration patterns in S. marmoratus: conspicuous ontogenetic chromatic variation in pit-tagged individuals which were recaptured at different times; (a,b) subadult specimen sampled in Roledo (Piedmont, Verbano-Cusio-Ossola: VCO; 46°10′16.7″ N 8°18′49.7″ E), age and genetic data unavailable; (a) sampled on 28 April 2021, 20.0 cm TL, 86 g, dotted pattern; (b) recaptured in the same site on 28 October 2021, 23.4 cm TL, 122 g, marbled pattern; (c,d) Subadult specimen sampled in Prata di Vogogna (Piedmont, VCO; 46°1′40.8″ N 8°17′2.2″ E), age and genetic data unavailable; (c) sampled on 26 April 2021, 20.6 cm TL, weight not available, dotted pattern; (d) recaptured in the same site on 19 October 2021, 26.4 cm TL, 166.0 g, marbled pattern.
On the other hand, there is ample evidence of salmonid introductions in old historical times from outside Italy. Domestication practices and translocations of freshwater fishes, even across mountain ranges, go back to the Middle Ages and possibly to the Neolithic, seamlessly continuing through to the 18th and 19th century, before the onset of the fish-culture industry [85][97][98][99][100]. Non-native trouts with “brown-trout” dotted coloration patterns could have been introduced in northern Italy from adjacent areas such as the orographic right tributaries of the Po River, or even beyond the Alpine Divide, e.g., from the Danube basin, such as the common carp Cyprinus carpio L. in the Roman Period [85][101].

References

  1. Nardo, G.D. Sinonimia Moderna delle Specie Registrate nell’Opera Intitolata: "Descrizione de’ Crostacei, de’ Testacei e de’ Pesci che Abitanno le Lagune e Golfo Veneto Rappresentati in Figure à Chiaro-Scuro ed a Colori”; Antonelli: Venezia, Italy, 1847.
  2. Zerunian, S. Iconografia dei Pesci delle Acque Interne d’Italia; Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio (Direzione Conservazione Natura). Unione zoologica Italiana. Istituto Nazionale Fauna Selvatica. Tipolitografia F.G. Savigliano sul Panaro: Modena, Italy, 2002.
  3. Bovero, S.; Candiotto, A.; Ceppa, L.; Giuntoli, F.; Pascale, M.; Perosino, G.C. Stato dell’ittiofauna nei fiumi e torrenti del Piemonte. Riv. Piemont Stor. Nat. 2021, 42, 135–160.
  4. Nardo, G.D. Cenni Storico Critici sui Lavori Pubblicati Specialmente nel Nostro Secolo che Illustrano la Storia Naturale degli Animali Vertebrati della Veneta Terraferma ed Appendice Relativa ai Tentativi Fatti nelle Provincie Venete sulla Piscicoltura e sulla Propagazione Artifiziale del Pesce di Acqua Dolce; Grimaldo: Venice, Italy, 1875.
  5. Heckel, J.J.; Kner, R. Die Süsswasserfische der Österreichischen Monarchie, mit Rücksicht auf die Angränzenden Länder; von Engelmann, W.: Leipzig, Germany, 1857.
  6. Cuvier, G.; Valenciennes, A. Histoire Naturelle des Poissons. Tome vingt et unième. Suite du Livre vingt et unième et des Clupéoïdes. Livre vingt-deuxième. De la Famille des Salmonoïdes; Bertrand, P., at Berger-Levrault: Strasbourg, France, 1848.
  7. Kottelat, M. European freshwater fishes. Biologia 1997, 52 (Suppl. S5), 1–271.
  8. Pomini, F.P. Ricerche sui Salmo dell’Italia peninsulare. I. La trota del Sagittario (Abruzzi): Salmo ghigii (n. sp.). Atti. Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat. Milano 1941, 80, 33–48.
  9. Kottelat, M.; Freyhof, J. Handbook of European Freshwater Fishes; Kottelat, M., Freyhof, J., Eds.; Cornol, Switzerland and Freyhof, J.: Berlin, Germany, 2007.
  10. Segherloo, I.H.; Freyhof, J.; Berrebi, P.; Ferchaud, A.-L.; Geiger, M.; Laroche, J.; Levin, B.A.; Normandeau, E.; Bernatchez, L. A genomic perspective on an old question: Salmo trouts or Salmo trutta (Teleostei: Salmonidae)? Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2021, 162, 107204.
  11. Snoj, A.; Bravničar, J.; Marić, S.; Sušnik Bajec, S.; Benaissa, H.; Schöffmann, J. Nuclear DNA reveals multiple waves of colonisation, reticulate evolution and a large impact of stocking on trout in north-west Africa. Hydrobiologia 2021, 848, 3389–3405.
  12. Duméril, A.H.A. Note sur une truite d’Algérie (Salar macrostigma, A. Dum.). C. R. Hebd. Acad. Sci. 1858, 47, 160–162.
  13. Schöffmann, J. Autochthone Forellen (Salmo trutta L.) in Nordafrika. Österreichs Fischerei 1993, 46, 164–169.
  14. Bobbio, L.; Cannas, R.; Cau, A.; Deiana, A.M.; Duchi, A.; Gandolfi, G.; Tagliavini, J. Mitochondrial variability in Italian trouts, with particular reference to “macrostigma” populations. In Proceedings of the 6th National Conference of AIIAD (Associazione Italiana Ittiologi Acque Dolci): Carte Ittiche Dieci Anni Dopo, Varese Ligure, Italy, 6–8 June 1996; pp. 42–49.
  15. Duchi, A. Flank spot number and its significance for systematics, taxonomy and conservation of the near-threatened Mediterranean trout Salmo cettii: Evidence from a genetically pure population. J. Fish Biol. 2017, 92, 254–260.
  16. Duchi, A. Extant because important or important because extant? On the scientific importance and conservation of a genetically pure Sicilian population of the threatened Salmo cettii Rafinesque, 1810. Cybium 2020, 44, 41–44.
  17. Tougard, C.; Justy, F.; Guinand, B.; Douzery, E.J.P.; Berrebi, P. Salmo macrostigma (Teleostei, Salmonidae): Nothing more than a brown trout (S. trutta) lineage? J. Fish Biol. 2018, 93, 302–310.
  18. Splendiani, A.; Palmas, F.; Sabatini, A.; Caputo Barucchi, V. The name of the trout: Considerations on the taxonomic status of the Salmo trutta L., 1758 complex (Osteichthyes: Salmonidae) in Italy. Eur. Zool. J. 2019, 86, 432–442.
  19. Fruciano, C.; Pappalardo, A.M.; Tigano, C.; Ferrito, V. Phylogeographical relationships of Sicilian brown trout and the effects of genetic introgression on morphospace occupation. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 2014, 112, 387–398.
  20. Rafinesque-Schmaltz, C.S. Indice d’Ittiologia Siciliana: Ossia, Catalogo Metodico dei Nomi Latini, Italiani, e Siciliani dei Pesci, che si Rinvengono in Sicilia Disposti Secondo un Metodo Naturale e Seguito da un Appendice che Contiene la Descrizione de Alcuni Nuovi Pesci Siciliani; del Nobolo G: Messina, Italy, 1810.
  21. Duchi, A.; (Legambiente Ragusa, Ragusa, Italy). Personal communication, 2021.
  22. Giuffra, E. Identificazione Genetica e Filogenia delle Popolazioni di Trota Comune, Salmo trutta L., del Bacino del Po. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Turin, Turin, Italy, 1993.
  23. Giuffra, E.; Guyomard, R.; Forneris, G. Phylogenetic relationships and introgression patterns between incipient parapatric species of Italian brown trout (Salmo trutta L. complex). Mol. Ecol. 1996, 5, 207–220.
  24. Meraner, A.; Gandolfi, A. Genetics of the genus Salmo in Italy: Evolutionary history, population structure, molecular ecology and conservation. In Brown Trout: Biology, Ecology and Management; Lobón-Cerviá, J., Sanz, N., Eds.; Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2018; pp. 65–102.
  25. Giuffra, E.; Bernatchez, L.; Guyomard, R. Mitochondrial control region and protein coding gene sequence variation among phenotypic forms of brown trout Salmo trutta from Northern Italy. Mol. Ecol. 1994, 3, 161–172.
  26. Patarnello, T.; Bargelloni, L.; Caldara, F.; Colombo, L. Cytochrome b and 16S rRNA sequence variation in the Salmo trutta (Salmonidae, Teleostei) species complex. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 1994, 3, 69–74.
  27. Gratton, P.; Allegrucci, G.; Gandolfi, A.; Sbordoni, V. Genetic differentiation and hybridization in two naturally occurring sympatric trout Salmo spp. forms from a small karstic lake. J. Fish Biol. 2013, 82, 637–657.
  28. Gratton, P.; Allegrucci, G.; Sbordoni, V.; Gandolfi, A. The evolutionary jigsaw puzzle of the surviving trout (Salmo trutta L. complex) diversity in the Italian region. A multilocus Bayesian approach. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2014, 79, 292–304.
  29. Palombo, V.; De Zio, E.; Salvatore, G.; Esposito, S.; Iaffaldano, N.; D’Andrea, M. Genotyping of two Mediterranean trout populations in central-southern Italy for conservation purposes using a rainbow-trout-derived SNP array. Animals 2021, 11, 1803.
  30. Karaman, S. Prilog poznavanju slatkovodnih riba Jugoslavije. Glasnik Skopskog naučnog društva knj. Skopje 1938, 18, 131–139.
  31. Bianco, P.G. An update on the status of native and exotic freshwater fishes of Italy. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 2014, 30, 62–77.
  32. Chiereghin, S. Descrizione de’ Pesci, de’ Crostacei e de’ Testacei che Abitano le Lagune ed il Golfo Veneto; Canova ed: Treviso, Italy, 2001; Volume 2.
  33. Soldo, A. First marine record of marble trout Salmo marmoratus. J. Fish Biol. 2013, 82, 700–702.
  34. Snoj, A.; Marčeta, B.; Sušnik, S.; Melkič, E.; Meglič, V.; Dovč, P. The taxonomic status of the ’sea trout’ from the north Adriatic Sea, as revealed by mitochondrial and nuclear DNA analysis. J. Biogeogr. 2002, 29, 1179–1185.
  35. Splendiani, A.; Ruggeri, P.; Giovannotti, M.; Caputo Barucchi, V. Role of environmental factors in the spread of domestic trout in Mediterranean streams. Freshwat. Biol. 2013, 58, 2089–2101.
  36. Borroni, I.; Grimaldi, E. Fattori e tendenze di modificazione dell’ittiofauna italiana d’acqua dolce. Ital. J. Zool. 1978, 45, 63–73.
  37. Bianco, P.G.; Delmastro, G.B. Recenti novità tassonomiche riguardanti i pesci d’acqua dolce autoctoni in Italia e descrizione di una nuova specie di luccio. Res. Wildl. Conserv. 2011, 2, 1–14.
  38. Gridelli, E. I Pesci d’Acqua Dolce della Venezia Giulia; Del Bianco D.: Udine, Italy, 1935.
  39. Old Maps Online. Available online: https://www.oldmapsonline.org/ (accessed on 18 February 2022).
  40. Splendiani, A.; Berrebi, P.; Tougard, C.; Righi, T.; Reynaud, N.; Fioravanti, T.; Lo Conte, P.; Delmastro, G.B.; Baltieri, M.; Ciuffardi, L.; et al. The role of the south-western Alps as a unidirectional corridor for Mediterranean brown trout (Salmo trutta complex) lineages. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 2020, 131, 909–926.
  41. Rossi, A.R.; Petrosino, G.; Milana, V.; Martinoli, M.; Rakaj, A.; Tancioni, L. Genetic identification of native populations of Mediterranean brown trout Salmo trutta L. complex (Osteichthyes: Salmonidae) in central Italy. Eur. Zool. J. 2019, 86, 424–431.
  42. Zanetti, M.; Nonnis Marzano, F.; Lorenzoni, M. I Salmonidi Italiani: Linee Guida per la Conservazione della Biodiversità. 2013, A.I.I.A.D. (Associazione Italiana Ittiologi Acque Dolci) Gruppo di Lavoro Salmonidi. Available online: http://www.aiiad.it/sito/temi/salmonidi/24-documento-salmonidi-febbraio-2013 (accessed on 7 February 2022).
  43. Lorenzoni, M. The check-list of the Italian freshwater fish fauna. Ital. J. Freshwat. Ichthyol. 2019, 5, 239–254.
  44. Pustovrh, G.; Sušnik Bajec, S.; Snoj, A. Evolutionary relationship between marble trout of the northern and the southern Adriatic basin. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2011, 59, 761–766.
  45. Pustovrh, G.; Snoj, A.; Bajec, S.S. Molecular phylogeny of Salmo of the western Balkans, based upon multiple nuclear loci. Genet. Sel. Evol. 2014, 47, 7.
  46. Lecaudey, L.A.; Schliewen, U.K.; Osinov, A.G.; Taylor, E.B.; Bernatchez, L.; Weiss, S.J. Inferring phylogenetic structure, hybridization and divergence times within Salmoninae (Teleostei: Salmonidae) using RAD-sequencing. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2018, 124, 82–99.
  47. Bernatchez, L.; Guyomard, R.; Bonhomme, F. DNA sequence variation of the mitochondrial control region among geographically and morphologically remote European brown trout Salmo trutta populations. Mol. Ecol. 1992, 1, 161–173.
  48. Berrebi, B.; Povz, B.; Jesensek, D.; Cattaneo-Berrebi, G.; Crivelli, A.J. The genetic diversity of native, stocked and hybrid populations of marble trout in the Soca River, Slovenia. Heredity 2000, 85, 277–287.
  49. Bernatchez, L. The evolutionary history of brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) inferred from phylogeographic, nested clade, and mismatch analyses of mitochondrial DNA variation. Evolution 2001, 55, 351–379.
  50. Sanz, N. Phylogeographic history of brown trout: A review. In Brown Trout: Biology, Ecology and Management; Lobón-Cerviá, J., Sanz, N., Eds.; Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2018; pp. 17–64.
  51. Lobón-Cerviá, J.; Esteve, M.; Berrebi, P.; Duchi, A.; Lorenzoni, M.; Young, K.A. Trout and char of central and southern Europe and northern Africa. In Trout and Char of the World; Kershner, J.L., Williams, J.E., Gresswell, R.E., Lobón-Cerviá, J., Eds.; American Fisheries Society: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2019; pp. 379–410.
  52. Maddison, W.P. Gene trees in species trees. Syst. Biol. 1997, 46, 523–536.
  53. Sušnik Bajec, S.; Pustovhr, G.; Jasenšek, D.; Snoj, A. Population genetic SNP analysis of marble and brown trout in a hybridization zone of the Adriatic watershed in Slovenia. Biol. Conserv. 2017, 184, 239–250.
  54. Snoj, A.; Marić, S.; Berrebi, P.; Crivelli, A.J.; Shumka, S.; Sušnik, S. Genetic architecture of trout from Albania as revealed by mtDNA control region variation. Genet. Sel. Evol. 2009, 41, 22.
  55. Bianco, P.G. Potential role of the paleohistory of the Mediterranean and Paratethys basins on the early dispersal of Auro-Mediterranean freshwater fishes. Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwat. 1990, 1, 167–184.
  56. Meraner, A.; Baric, S.; Pelster, B.; Dalla Via, J. Trout (Salmo trutta) mitochondrial DNA polymorphism in the centre of the marble trout distribution area. Hydrobiologia 2007, 579, 337–349.
  57. Pujolar, J.M.; Lucarda, A.N.; Simonato, M.; Patarnello, T. Restricted gene flow at the micro- and macro-geographical scale in marble trout based on mtDNA and microsatellite polymorphism. Front. Zool. 2011, 8, 1–10.
  58. Lucarda, A.N.; Bargelloni, L.; Patarnello, T.; Gandolfi, G. Genetic characterisation of Salmo trutta marmoratus (Cuvier, 1817) populations by means of nuclear markers: Preliminary results. Quad. ETP 1999, 28, 1–5.
  59. Meraner, A.; Baric, S.; Pelster, B.; Dalla Via, J. Microsatellite DNA data point to extensive but incomplete admixture in a marble and brown trout hybridization zone. Conserv. Genet. 2010, 11, 985–998.
  60. Marazzi, S. Atlante Orografico delle Alpi. SOIUSA: Suddivisione Orografica Internazionale Unificata del Sistema Alpino; Priuli & Verlucca: Pavone Canavese, Italy, 2005.
  61. Meraner, A.; Gratton, P.; Baraldi, F.; Gandolfi, A. Nothing but a trace left? Autochthony and conservation status of Northern Adriatic Salmo trutta inferred from PCR multiplexing, mtDNA control region sequencing and microsatellite analysis. Hydrobiologia 2013, 702, 201–213.
  62. Splendiani, A.; Ruggeri, P.; Giovannotti, M.; Pesaresi, S.; Occhipinti, G.; Fioravanti, T.; Lorenzoni, M.; Nisi Cerioni, P.; Caputo Barucchi, V. Alien brown trout invasion of the Italian peninsula: The role of geological, climate and anthropogenic factors. Biol. Invasions 2016, 18, 2029–2044.
  63. Splendiani, A.; Fioravanti, T.; Giovannotti, M.; Olivieri, L.; Ruggeri, P.; Nisi Cerioni, P.; Vanni, S.; Enrichetti, F.; Caputo Barucchi, V. Museum samples could help to reconstruct the original distribution of Salmo trutta complex in Italy. J. Fish Biol. 2017, 90, 2443–2451.
  64. Casalis, G. Dizionario Geografico Storico-Statistico-Commerciale degli Stati di S.M. il Re di Sardegna; Maspero: Turin, Italy, 1833; Volume 1.
  65. Casalis, G. Dizionario Storico-Statistico-Commerciale degli Stati di S.M. il Re di Sardegna; Maspero: Turin, Italy, 1852; Volume 22.
  66. Festa, E. I pesci del Piemonte. Boll. Mus. Zool. Anat. Comp. R Univ. Torino 1892, 7, 1–125.
  67. Von Siebold, C.T.E. Ueber die Fische des Ober-Engadins. In Proceedings of the Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Samaden, Samaden, Switzerland, 24–26 August 1863; pp. 173–190.
  68. Monti, M. Notizie dei Pesci delle Provincie di Como e Sondrio e del Cantone Ticino; Franchi, C.: Como, Italy, 1864.
  69. Fatio, V. Faune des Vertébrés de la Suisse: Histoire Naturelle des Poissons; II part; Georg, H.: Geneva, Switzerland; Basel, Switzerland, 1890; Volume 5, pp. 354–355.
  70. Sommani, E. Il Salmo marmoratus CUV.: Sua origine e distribuzione nell’Italia settentrionale. Boll. Pesca Piscic. E Idrobiol. 1960, 15, 40–47.
  71. Schönswetter, P.; Stehlik, I.; Holderegger, R.; Tribsch, A. Molecular evidence for glacial refugia of mountain plants in the European Alps. Mol. Ecol. 2005, 14, 3547–3555.
  72. Stefani, F.; Anzani, A.; Marieni, A. Echoes from the past: A genetic trace of native brown trout in the Italian Alps. Environ. Biol. Fish 2020, 102, 1327–1335.
  73. Schorr, G.; Holstein, N.; Pearman, P.B.; Guisan, A.; Kadereit, J.W. Integrating species distribution models (SDMs) and phylogeography for two species of Alpine Primula. Ecol. Evol. 2012, 2, 1260–1277.
  74. D’Ancona, I.J.; Merlo, S. La speciazione delle trote italiane ed in particolare in quelle del lago di Garda. Atti. Lst. Ven. Sci. Lett. Arti. 1959, 117, 19–26.
  75. Behnke, R.J. The systematics of salmonid fishes of recently glaciated lakes. J. Fish Res. Board Can. 1972, 29, 639–671.
  76. Todesco, M.; Pascual, M.A.; Owens, G.L.; Ostevik, K.; Moyers, B.T.; Hubner, S.; Heredia, S.M.; Hahn, M.A.; Caseys, C.; Bock, D.G.; et al. Hybridization and extinction. Evol. Appl. 2016, 9, 892–908.
  77. Meldgaard, T.; Crivelli, A.J.; Jesensek, D.; Poizat, G.; Rubin, J.-F.; Berrebi, P. Hybridization mechanisms between the endangered marble trout (Salmo marmoratus) and the brown trout (Salmo trutta) as revealed by in-stream experiments. Biol. Conserv. 2007, 136, 602–611.
  78. Hamilton, K.E.; Ferguson, A.; Taggart, J.B.; Tómasson, T.; Walker, A.; Fahy, E. Post-glacial colonization of brown trout, Salmo trutta L.: Ldh-5* as a phylogeographic marker locus. J. Fish Biol. 1989, 35, 651–664.
  79. Presa, P.; Krieg, F.; Estoup, A.; Guyomard, R. Diversité et gestion génétique de la truite commune: Apport de I’étude du polymorphisme des locus protéiques et microsatellites. Gén. Sél. Evol. 1994, 26 (Suppl. S1), 183s–202s. Available online: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00894063 (accessed on 20 February 2022).
  80. Largiadèr, C.R.; Scholl, A. Effects of stocking on the genetic diversity of brown trout populations of the Adriatic and Danubian drainages in Switzerland. J. Fish Biol. 1995, 47 (Suppl. A), 209–255.
  81. Sommani, E. Sulla presenza del Salmo fario (L.) e del Salmo marmoratus (Cuv.) nell’Italia settentrionale: Loro caratteristiche ecologiche e considerazioni relative ai ripopolamenti. Boll. Pesca Piscic. Idrobiol. 1948, 3, 136–145.
  82. Keller, I.; Taverna, A.; Seehausen, O. Evidence of neutral and adaptive genetic divergence between European trout populations sampled along altitudinal gradients. Mol. Ecol. 2011, 20, 1888–1904.
  83. Keller, I.; Schuler, J.; Bezault, E.; Seehausen, O. Parallel divergent adaptation along replicated altitudinal gradients in Alpine trout. BMC Evol. Biol. 2012, 12, 210.
  84. Analisi dell’opera. Natura Morta con Pesci di Evaristo Baschenis. Natura Morta con Pesci, ~1670, oil on Canvas, 65 cm × 108 cm. Bergamo, Academy of Fine Arts in Carrara. Available online: https://www.analisidellopera.it/natura-morta-con-pesci-baschenis/ (accessed on 22 February 2022).
  85. Bianco, P.G. Freshwater fish transfers in Italy: History, local modification of fish composition, and a prediction on the future of native populations. In Stocking and Introductions of Fishes; Cowx, I.G., Ed.; Fishing New Book; Blackwell Science: Oxford, UK, 1998; pp. 167–185.
  86. Sacchi, B. (Platina) Platine de Honesta Voluptate et Valetudine; de Aquila, L.: Venice, Italy, 1475.
  87. Giovio, P. Novocomensis de Piscibus Marinis, Lacustribus, Fluviatilibus, Item de Testaceis ac Salsamentis Liber; Minitii Calvi, F.: Rome, Italy, 1527.
  88. Salviani, I. Aquatilium Animalium Historiae, Liber Primus: Cum Eorumdem Formis, Aere Excusis; Saluianum: Rome, Italy, 1554.
  89. Porcacchi, T.; Giolito de Ferrari, G.; Gesuiti: Collegio, R. La Nobiltà della Città di Como Descritta da Thomaso Porcacchi da Castiglione Arretino: Con la Tavola delle Cose Notabili; di Ferrarii Giolito, G.: Venice, Italy, 1569.
  90. Scappi, B. Opera di Bartolomeo Scappi, Mastro Dell’arte del Cucinare, Divisa in Sei Libri; de’ Vecchi, A.: Venice, Italy, 1570.
  91. Grattarolo, B. Historia della Riviera di Salò; Sabbio, V.: Brescia, Italy, 1599.
  92. Stefani, B. L’arte di Ben Cucinare, et Instruire i Men Periti in Questa Lodevole Professione: Dove Anco s’Insegna a Far Pasticci, Sapori, Salse, Gelatine, Torte, et Altro; Osanna: Mantua, Italy, 1662.
  93. Roberti, G. Lettera Sopra il Canto de’ Pesci; della Volpe, L.: Bologna, Italy, 1767.
  94. Delling, B. Morphological distinction of the marble trout, Salmo marmoratus, in comparison to marbled Salmo trutta from River Otra, Norway. Cybium 2002, 26, 283–300.
  95. Snoj, A.; Glamuzina, B.; Razpet, A.; Zablocki, J.; Bogut, I.; Lerceteau-Köhler, E.; Pojskić, N.; Sušnik, S. Resolving taxonomic uncertainties using molecular systematics: Salmo dentex and the Balkan trout community. Hydrobiologia 2010, 651, 199–212.
  96. Pontalti, L. La trota marmorata dai fiumi ai ruscelli: Possibilità, per una specie in pericolo, di allungare il proprio habitat. Seconda parte: Acclimatamento di una popolazione. Dendronatura 2020, 1, 76–83.
  97. Huitfeldt-Kaas, H. Ferskvandsfiskenes Utbredelse og Indvandring i Norge; Central Trykkeriet: Oslo, Norway, 1918.
  98. Sønstebø, J.H.; Borgstrøm, R.; Heun, M. Genetic structure of brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) from the Hardangervidda mountain plateau (Norway) analyzed by microsatellite DNA: A basis for conservation guidelines. Conserv. Genet. 2007, 8, 33–44.
  99. Miró, A.; Ventura, M. Evidence of exotic trout mediated minnow invasion in Pyrenean high mountain lakes. Biol. Invasions 2015, 17, 791–803.
  100. Tiberti, R.; Splendiani, A. Management of a highly unlikely native fish: The case of arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus from the Southern Alps. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshwat. Ecosyst. 2019, 29, 312–320.
  101. Vilizzi, L. The common carp, Cyprinus carpio, in the Mediterranean region: Origin, distribution, economic benefits, impacts and management. Fish. Manag. Ecol. 2011, 19, 93–110.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Zoology
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Gianluca Polgar
,
,
Pietro Volta
View Times: 665
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 28 Apr 2022
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Video Production Service
    Feedback